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You can Download Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 4 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 4 Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings (Cultural Developments)

Question 1.
From which language does the word Stupa come?
Answer:
Sanskrit

Question 2.
Who got the Sanchi Stupa built?
Answer:
Asoka

Question 3.
Who used to organize the Ashwamedha Yagas?
Answer:
Kings

Question 4.
In which language was the Vedas written?
Answer:
Sanskrit

Question 5.
Where was Buddha born?
Answer:
Lumbini

Question 6.
Where was Mahavira born?
Answer:
Kundagramam

Question 7.
Which was the first venue where Buddha began to teach?
Answer:
Saranath

Question 8.
With which religion are the 4 Arya Satyas connected?
Answer:
Buddhism

Question 9.
Which is the book that contains the laws of Buddha Sangha?
Answer:
Sutta Pitaka

Question 10.
Who was the first woman who was admitted to Buddhism?
Answer:
Mahaprajapati Gomati

Question 11.
The caves that were carved out in rocks for Buddha Bikshustolive?
Answer:
Viharas

Question 12.
In which year was Buddha born?
Answer:
563BC

Question 13.
Match the items in Column A with the items in Column B.

Answer:

Question 14.

Answer:

Question 15.
Where is Sanchi Stupa located? What are its special features?
Answer:
The Sanchi Stupa is located on a hill in a small village called Sanchi Kanakera. This place is 20 miles north-east of Bhopal, the capital of Madhya Pradesh. Sanchi Stupa has different constructions and on the whole, it looks like a crown. Here we can see a temple built in the 5^th century BC and many other historical monuments and also a huge mound. The Sanchi Stupa was built by Asoka in the 3^rd century BC. During the time of the Sungas (183-72 BC), this was further developed.

Question 16.
Who are the ones who tried to take away the eastern gate of Sanchi? Why?
Answer:
The Sanchi Stupa was discovered in 1818. Europeans of the 19^th century were greatly interested in this – Stupa. The French wanted to exhibit the eastern gate of Sanchi in a museum in France. They tried to get permission from Shajahan Begum, the ruler of Bhopal. But they failed in their attempts. Some English people. also tried such methods. In the end, both the French and the English had to satisfy themselves with the plaster cast of the Stupa.

Question 17.
Who protected the Sanchi Stupa? Write the names of two Patrons.
Answer:
Shajahan Begum and her successor Sultan Jahan Begum protected the Stupa. They spent a lot of money in the maintenance of this ancient monument. Sultan (This is just a name and not a position) Jahan Begum (1901-1926) took great interest in the matters related to Sanchi.

She donated money to build a museum and a guest house there. It was by staying in this guest house, John Marshal wrote volumes about Sanchi. To publish the writings of John Marshal also, Jahan Begum sanctioned money. John marshal dedicated his books to Sultan Jahan Begum.

1. The protection and maintenance of the Sanchi monuments were possible because of the discretion and foresight of the rulers of Bhopal.
2. It was a great fortune that they were made safe from the greedy eyes of railway contractors, builders and the Europeans who wanted to take them away to Europe.
3. Sanchi is one of the most important Buddhist centres in India. The discovery of this completely upset our earlier concepts and understanding of Buddhism, This place is now under the protection of the Archaeological Survey of India.

Question 18.
Make a list of the famous thinkers that lived in the 6^th century BC.
Answer:
The 6^th century BC was a turning point in world history. In many parts of the world there were different philosophers that were contributing to human thought and understanding. In Iran Zaratushtra, In China Confucius, in Greece Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, in India Mahavira and Gautama Buddha -all these people lived in this period.

Question 19.
Kings conducted big Yagas. Explain them.
Answer:
In the beginning, yagas were conducted in large groups for the entire people. But from 1000 to 500 BC, yagas were conducted privately by householders for the prosperity of their family or.clan. But great yagas like Rajasuyam and Ashwamedhom were conducted only by kings and chiefs.

1. The yagas and rituals lost their earlier simplicity and purity. They became more noisy, showy, expensive and even violent. Such yagas were unaffordable by, ordinary people.
2. With the increase in the yagas and rituals, the importance and prestige of Brahmins began to increase. Things like yagas became the monopoly of Brahmins. They misused their position to exploit people.

Question 20.
The travel of Siddhartha outside the palace utterly changed his life. Explain.
Answer:
The real name of Buddha was Siddhartha. He was the son of Suddhodana, the head of the Sakya Tribe. Siddhartha was born in Lumbini near Kapilavastu, in 563 BC. He showed much interest in religious matters even when he was very young.

He married his relative Yasodhara early and they had a son named Rahulan. One day the chariot driver took Siddhartha to the world outside the palace. This changed his life. He saw 4 big ‘sights’ – an old man, a sick person, a dead body and a sanyasi (ascetic).

These sights upset Siddhartha. He became aware of the mortality of man. He realized that the body becomes weaker and weaker and then it dies. The ascetic he met was sick and old but the joy and peace in him surprised Siddhartha. He then decided to follow the path of the ascetic. Soon he left the palace seeking the Ultimate Truth. This incident in the life of Buddha is known as the ‘Great Renunciation’.

To seek the Ultimate Truth, Buddha tried different things. He even tried to torture his body till he«was about to die. Then he abandoned such extreme measures, and sat under a Bodhi tree, immersed in meditation. He then received Enlightenment. From then he was known as Buddha (One who is endowed with Wisdom or Enlightenment) orTathagathan (One who has gained the Truth).

1. Buddha made his first preaching (Dharmopadesam) in Saranath. Here he spoke to five ascetics whom he knew before. This preaching is known as ‘Dharma Chakra Pravarthanam’. These five ascetics became his first disciples.
2. The rest of his life Buddha taught about Dharma or the true way of life. He died in his 80^th year, in 486 BC at Kushinagari. His mortal remains were buried in 8 different places and it is believed that in all those places Stupas were built.

Question 21.
What are the basic principles of Buddhism?
Answer:
The basis of Buddhism is Four Arya (Noble) Truths with Ashtangamarga. The 4 Noble Truths Buddha taught are:

1. The world is a sorrowful place.
2. Desires are the cause of sorrow.
3. If we deny our desires, we can avoid sorrow.
4. By following the Ashtanga Marga, you can overcome sorrow.

The ashtanga margas are: right word, right deed, right life, right efforts, right memory, right view, right decision and right meditation.

Question 22.
Explain the structural working of Buddhism. Do you think that the Buddhist Sangha worked in a democratic manner? Justify.
Answer:
The disciples of Buddha belonged to different social classes. There were kings, rich people, and householders among his disciples. There were also labourers, artisans and even slaves in the group. Inside the Sangha all were equal. Once a person becomes a Bikhshu or Bikshuni, his/her previous position did not matter.

The bhikhus and bikhshunis were required to follow the Sangha rules. All these rules are explained in ‘Viriaya Pitaka’. The rules were made in such a way that they would help people to come away from their luxurious lifestyles and live in a simple way. The Sangha followed’ a democratic way.

The internal, working of the Sangha was based on the traditions of the Ganas and Sanghas in the Mahajanapadas. Problems were solved through discussions. If there were differing views, things were settled by vote.

Question 23.
What are Chaitanyas?
Answer:
From the very early times, people used to consider some places as very holy. These places had some special features. There were some rare trees or rocks there. The places were also extremely beautiful. In them there were small kovils or shrines. These places were called Chaitanya’s. Chaitanya came from the word ‘chitha’. In fact, Chaitanya is a prayer hall.

Question 24.
Explain hagiography. What is its role in recreating history?
Answer:
Hagiography is the life history of a religious leader or a saint. To understand the Buddha statues, art historians must be familiar with Buddha’s hagiography. Usually, in a hagiography, the achievements of the saint or leader are praised. They may not be fully true. But they are important, as they give us valuable information regarding the traditions followed by disciples of certain faiths.

Biographical records show that Buddha got his Enlightenment as he was meditating under the Bodhi Tree. In many statues, Buddha is not shown at all. Sometimes he is represented as an empty seat, Stupa, wheel and such symbols.

1. The empty seat is symbolic of Buddha’s meditation.
2. The Stupas symbolize his final days, or death (Mahaparinirvana).
3. The wheel is symbolic of Buddha’s first preaching at Saranath.

Question 25.
In the background of the Sanchi Stupa, describe the making style and structure of the stupas. How do stupas help in the recreation of history?
Answer:
Stupas are found in Chaitanya’s. These are mounds where part of the mortal remains of Buddha or some things he used is buried. They have been made with bricks or stones. They have a lot of story value.

1. Even before the coming of Buddhism, the practice of making stupas was in existence. Later it became attached to Buddhism.
2. Since they are built over the remains of Buddha or the things he used, they are worshipped as a sign of Buddha and Buddhism.

Followers of Buddha built many stupas in different. parts of India. The Buddhist Book “Asokavadana Sishta” says that Emperor Asoka sent the mortal remains of Buddha to all the important towns of his empire and ordered stupas to be built over them. By the 2^nd century BC, many stupas were built. The most famous stupas are in Bharhut, Sanchi, and Saranath. Stupa is a Sanskrit word meaning a heap or mound. In the early times, stupas were in semi-circles.

Later they were known as ‘anda’. Gradually, the structure of the stupas became complex. They now acquired circular and rectangular shapes. Over the andas, they built some kind of balcony. It was called harmika which means ‘sreekovil’. It represents the abode of god. From harmika rose a flag-post, called ‘yashti’. Around this, there were chhatris (umbrellas). Around the mound, a stone wall was constructed separating it from the material world around.

The early stupas in Sanchi and Bharhut were simple. The gates and the fences were looking as if they were made of bamboos or wood. There were four entrance arches to the stupas. These arches were decorated with sculptures. The worshippers entered the stupa from the eastern archway and went round the mound, Later these stupas were adorned with various sculptures and inscriptions. Such decorated stupas can be seen in Amaravati and Shahji-ki-dheri in Peshawar in Pakistan.

Question 26.
Explain the principles of Jainism.
Answer:

• All things in the world have life. Even stones, rocks, and water have life and soul.
• Non-violence is the central principle of Jainism. It taught not to trouble humans, animals, insects and plants.
• The ultimate aim of human life is nirvana or getting moksha.
• Nirvana is the release from birth and rebirth.
• Karma causes birth and rebirth. If one wants to get moksha, his karma should be right. Only through the Triratnas – good knowledge, good action, and good faith-one can acquire moksha.
• To come out of the karma circle, asceticism and meditation are essential. For that worldly life should be given up. The Jain ascetics, both men and women, should take five pledges.
  1. Don’t kill
  2. Don’t steal
  3. Don’t lie
  4. Don’t own property
  5. Practise chastity

Question 27.
Bring out the basic differences between Mahayana and Hinayana.
Answer:
Buddhism was divided into two Mahayarta and Hinayana.

1. Hinayana means lesser vehicle or lesser wheel. Hinayana followed the basic tenets of Buddhism. They followed the old tradition. They continued using Pali to propagate their faith.

2. Mahayana means Great vehicle. They followed new principles and code of conduct. Worshipping the idols of Buddha and the Bodhisatwas became an important part of this group.

3. Mahayana followers looked at Buddha as a savior and worshipped him as a god. They prayed to him for moksha and guidance. Thus piety became the main feature of Mahayana Buddhism.

4. Mahayana followers believed in the concept of Bodhisatwa. Each follower here should try to become a Bodhisatwan. By serving others and performing Doble deeds anybody can become a Bodhisatwan.

5. Mahayana followers worshipped even some famous Bodhisatwans.To propagate Buddhism, Mahayana followers used Sanskrit.

Question 28.
The Stupa in Amaravati was neglected but the one in Sanchi was protected. Why?
Answer:
Amaravati Stupa was discovered before the discovery at Sanchi. But the scholars were not then aware of the importance of preserving the historical monuments. Sanchi was discovered in 1818. Of the 4 doors, three were still intact. The 4^th was lying down. The mound did not have any damage. The Europeans tried take away the doors to London or Paris, but because of the timely interference of the rulers in Bhopal, they were protected. But the ‘Mahachaitanya’ of Amaravati still remains as a small mound. It has lost all its past glory.

Question 29.
Were women allowed into the Buddhist Sangha? Clarify.
Answer:
In the beginning, only men could be members. But later women were also included. It was because of the persuasion by Ananda, who was one of the dearest disciples of Buddha, that Buddha allowed women into the Sangha. They were known as ‘bikhshunis’. The first bikhshuni was the foster mother of Buddha. Her name was Mahaprajapati Gomathy. All bikhshunis were propagators of the religion. They tried hard to become ‘theri’ – respectable women who were entitled to moksha.

Question 30.
Why were the stupas built? What is their importance?
Answer:
Stupas are holy places. These are mounds where part of the mortal remains of Buddha or some things he used is buried. They have been made with bricks or stones. They have a lot of story value.

1. Even before the coming of Buddhism, the practice of making stupas was in existence. Later it became attached to Buddhism.
2. Since they are built over the remains of Buddha or the things he used, they are worshipped as a sign of Buddha and Buddhism.

Followers of Buddha built many stupas in different parts of India. The Buddhist Book “Asokavadana Sishta” says that Emperor Asoka sent the mortal remains of Buddha in all the important towns of his empire and ordered stupas to be built over them. By the 2^nd century BC, many stupas were built. The most famous stupas are in Bharhut, Sanchi and Saranath.

Question 31.
Do you think the stupas were built from the donations received from people? Justify.
Answer:
On the pillars and bars of the stupas, there are many inscriptions. These inscriptions record that the stupas were built with the donations from people. From a different sections of the society, funds came.

1. Some donations came from kings like Satavahanan.
2. Guilds also gave donations. It was the artisans who made sculptures with ivory that gave the money to make a door in Sanchi.
3. Ordinary men and women also gave donations, their names, profession, birthplace, and names of their relatives are inscribed on the stones.
4. Bhikshus and Bikshunis also gave their contributions to building the stupas.

Question 32.
Describe the structure and style of making of the stupas.
Answer:
Stupa is a Sanskrit word meaning a heap or mound. In the early times, stupas were in semi-circles. Later they were known as ‘anda’. Gradually, the structure of the stupas became complex. They now acquired circular and rectangular shapes. Over the andas, they built some kind of balcony.

It was called harmika which means ‘sreekovil’. It represents the abode of god. From harmika rose a flag-post, called ‘yashti’. Around this, there were chhatris (umbrellas). Around the mound, a stone wall was constructed separating it from the material world around.

The early stupas in Sanchi and Bharhut were simple. The gates and the fences were looking as if they were made of bamboos or wood. There were four entrance arches to the stupas. These arches. were decorated with sculptures. The worshippers entered the stupa from the eastern archway arid went round the mound, Later these stupas were adorned with various sculptures and inscriptions. Such decorated stupas can be seen in Amaravati and Shahji-ki-dheri in Peshawar in Pakistan.

Question 33.
Why did Buddhism become popular? To which all countries did it spread?
Answer:
Even during Buddha’s lifetime and also after his death Buddhism began to grow popular. It spread into China, Japan, Burma, Sri Lanka, Mangolia and Tibet. The quickly changing social environment and the dissatisfaction of people with the existing religious practices attracted them to Buddhism. The following were the additional reasons:

1. Buddhism gave preference to values and conduct more than to birth. It rejected the caste system.
2. It stressed compassion, especially to the children and the destitute.
3. Its principles were easily understandable.
4. Buddha used Pali, the language of the common people, to propagate his religion. It increased its popularity.
5. It got the support of kings like Asoka, Kanishka, and Harsha.
6. The working of the Buddhist Sanghas also helped in increasing its popularity.

Question 34.
In ancient Hindu Religion there are two Traditions. What are they? What are their salient features?
Answer:
The two traditions are Vaishnava religion and Saiva religion.

1. Vaishnavas worshipped Vishnu as the main god. Saivas worshipped Siva. In their worship piety was the main factor. Piety is the love and dedication the worshipper shows his god.

2.  In Vaishnava religion, the followers accepted the ten avatars of Vishnu. The Vaishnavites believed that whenever the world was threatened by immoral powers with violence and destruction, Vishnu appeared as a new avatar to save the believers.

3. Different avatars became popular in different parts of the country. Local deities were also viewed as Vishnu’s avatar. It was a way to make a unified religious tradition. In different sculptures, Vishnu appeared in different forms.

Question 35.
Find out the relation between the items in A and complete the blank in B accordingly.

1.a) Mahayanam – Big wheel
b) Hinayanam – …………

2.a) Jainism-Triratnas
b) Buddhism – ………..

3.a) Mahavira – Kuntagramam
b) Buddha – ……….
Answer:
1. small wheel
2. Ashtangamangas
3. Lumbini

Question 36.
The 6^th century BC was a period of social revolutions in India. On the basis of this statement, explain the origin of Buddhism and Jainism.
Answer:
Areas to be considered:

1. Yaga tradition
2. Brahmin authority
3. New Economic system
4. Fresh questions
5. Discussions and Talks
6. Sacrifices and Debates

The 6^th century BC was a turning point in world history. Many philosophers were found in different parts of the world. In Iran Zaratushtra, In China Confucius, in Greece Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, in India Mahavira and Gautama Buddha -all these people lived in this period.

1. They tried to find out the mysteries of existence.
2. They tried to find the relations between man and the universe.
3. They tried to analyze the social and economic happenings of the time.

In India, the 6^th century BC was a period of social revolution. In the Ganges valley, new Empires and cities came up. Social and economic life of the people was changing in various ways. These changes caused many religions to come up. The most important of them were Jainism and Buddhism. Let’s see the causes for their rise.

Sacrificial Tradition: Even before the coming of Jainism and Buddhism, different philosophical concepts and religious traditions were in existence. One of them was the Veda tradition. We know things about that period from Rigveda, which was collected between 1500 and 1000 BC.

Rigveda is a collection of hymns praising gods like Fire, Indra, and Soman. These hymns were recited during the sacrifices (Yagas) which were performed by the people to have health, children, cattle wealth and long life.

In the beginning, yagas were conducted in large groups for the entire people. But from 1000 to 500 BC, yagas were conducted privately by householders for the prosperity of their family or clan. But great yagas like Rajasuyam and Ashwamedhom were conducted only by kings and chiefs.

The yagas and rituals lost their earlier simplicity and purity. They became more noisy, showy, expensive and even violent. Such yagas were unaffordable by ordinary people. With the increase in the yagas and rituals, the importance and prestige of Brahmins began to increase. Things like yagas became the monopoly of Brahmins. They misused their position to exploit people.

The Problems of Jati and Language: In the post-Veda period the society was divided into 4 Varnas. It caused a lot of conflicts in the society. Brahmins claimed the highest status. They had special rights. They were exempted from taxes and punishment. The Kshatriyas objected to this. Since Mahavira and Buddha were Kshatriyas, they too were against this Brahmin domination.

Vaisyas and Sudras opposed the authority of the higher Varnas. Although the Vaisyas had money and power, their position was lower than the Brahmins and Kshatriyas. Naturally they welcomed the new religions.

All the Vedic books were written in Sanskrit. So, most of the people did not understand anything. The incantations for yagas and rituals were recited in Sanskrit. People repeated them without knowing what they said. Mahavira and Buddha propagated their religions in Pali and Prakrit. So people accepted them easily.

The New Economic System: The growth of the agricultural economy helped the new religions to develop. The use of iron made it possible to clear forests and make bigger farms. Agricultural technologies also became better. The development of agriculture increased the demand for cattle, as bullocks were used for ploughing the farms.

Brahmins killed a lot of cattle for various sacrifices and therefore there was a reduction in the cattle wealth. Priestly sacrifices of animals became an obstacle for agriculture. Naturally, people welcomed the new religions which advocated non-violence.

New Questions: The philosophical questions in the Upanishads also made people unhappy. The Upanishads say that people were interested in knowing the essence of life, the possibility of life after death, rebirth, etc. Issues like the relation of karma with rebirth caused a lot of heated debates. People were interested in finding out the Ultimate Truth.

Many people even doubted if there is anything called the Ultimate Truth. They also doubted the importance of Veda tradition. Debates and Discussions: We get some idea about the debates and discussions of those times from the Buddhist books. There were some 64 different kinds of ideological streams.

Religious teachers travelled across the country and discussed matters with the common people. They tried to impress upon the people with the importance of their thinking. People also discussed and debated these matters. These discussions were conducted in some special tents with tapering tops called ‘kudagarasala’ or in groves where the bikshus stayed during their journeys. If one philosopher defeated another one in a debate, the followers of the defeated one would follow the winning philosopher. Therefore the support for a particular stream would increase or decrease fast.

People like Mahavira and Buddha questioned the authenticity of the Vedas. They gave importance to personal actions. They asked the people, men and women, to make efforts to be free from the worries and anxieties of this world. Their attitude was quite different from the attitude of the Brahmins who gave importance to one’s birth and not his way of life.

Question 37.
Write an essay defining the principles of Buddhism, Buddha Sangha and the Spread of Buddhism.
Answer:
It is from stories that we learn about the principles of Buddhism, especially from “Suttapitaka”. Some of the stories here describe the miraculous powers of Buddha, There are also stories which speak highly of his wisdom, logic and sense of reality. These stories point out that without showing any miracles, he tried to teach people things logically.

For example there is this story. A mother whose son had died came to Buddha asking him to bring her dead son back to life. He did not perform any miracle of raising the boy from death. But he convinced the mother about the inevitability of death.

All these stories are written in Pali, the language of the common people. So, people could understand them easily. In his first preaching at Saranath we can see the important principles of Buddhism.

The world continuously changes. There is nothing permanent or immortal in it. There is no soul in it. In short the world is without eternity and without soul. The basis of Buddhism is Four Noble Truths (Arya Satyas) with Ashtangamarga. The Noble Truths are:

1. The world is a sorrowful place.
2. Desires are the cause of sorrow.
3. If we deny our desires, we can avoid sorrow.
4. By following the Ashtanga Maiga, you can overcome sorrow.

The ashtanga margas are: right word, right deed, right life, right efforts, right memory, right view, right decision and right meditation.

Followers of Buddha: For his ascetics Buddha made an organization called ‘Sangha’. Their main duty was preaching or dharmopadesa. They lived a simple life keeping only the basic necessities. They had a small bowl for taking alms. Since they lived with the alms they received they were known as ‘bikshus’. Initially there were only men. But because of the influence of Ananda, a favourite disciple of Buddha, women also were enrolled. They were called bikshunis. The first bikshuni was Buddha’s foster mother, Mahaprajapati Gomathy. All bikshunis wanted to be ‘theri’, respectable women who have got moksha.

The disciples of Buddha belonged to different social classes. There were kings, rich people, and householders among his disciples. There were also labourers, artisans and even slaves in the group. Inside the Sangha all were equal. Once a person becomes a Bikhshu or Bikshuni, his/her previous position did not matter.

The bikhshus and bikhshunis were required to follow the Sangha rules. All these rules are explained in ‘Vinaya Pitaka’. The rules were made in such a way that they would help people to come away from their luxurious lifestyles and live in a simple way. The Sangha followed a democratic way. The internal working of the Sangha was based on the traditions of the Ganas and Sanghas in the Mahajanapadas. Problems were solved through discussions. If there were differing views, things were settled by vote.

The Spread of Buddhism: Even during Buddha’s lifetime and also after his death Buddhism began to grow popular. It spread into China, Japan, Burma, Sri Lanka, Mangolia and Tibet. The quickly changing social environment and the dissatisfaction of people with the existing religious practices attracted them to Buddhism. The following were the additional reasons:

1. Buddhism gave preference to values and conduct more than to birth. It rejected the caste system.
2. It stressed compassion, especially to the children and the destitute.
3. Its principles were easily understandable.
4. Buddha used Pali, the language of the common people, to propagate his religion. It increased its popularity.
5. It got the support of kings like Asoka, Kanishka, and Harsha.
6. The working of the Buddhist Sanghas also helped in increasing its popularity.

Question 38.
What are Stupas? Prepare a note on them.
Answer:
Stupas are holy places. These are mounds where part of the mortal remains of Buddha or some things he used is buried. They have been made with bricks or stones. They have a lot of story value.

1. Even before the coming of Buddhism, the practice of making stupas was in existence. Later it became attached to Buddhism.
2. Since they are built over the remains of Buddha or the things he used, they are worshipped as a sign of Buddha and Buddhism.

Followers of Buddha built many stupas in different parts of India. The Buddhist Book “Asokavadana Sishta” says that Emperor Asoka sent the mortal remains of Buddha in all the important towns of his empire and ordered stupas to be built over them. By the 2^nd century BC, many stupas were built. The most famous stupas are in Bharhut, Sanchi and Saranath.

Stupa is a Sanskrit word meaning a heap or mound. In the early times, stupas were in semi-circles. Later they were known as ‘anda’. Gradually, the structure of the stupas became complex. They now acquired circular and rectangular shapes. Over the andas, they built some kind of balcony. It was called harmika which means ‘sreekovil’. It represents the abode of god. From harmika rose a flag-post, called ‘yashti’. Around this there were chhatris (umbrellas). Around the mound, a stone wall was constructed separating it from the material world around. The early stupas in Sanchi and Bharhut were simple.

The gates and the fences were looking as if they were made of bamboos or wood. There were four entrance arches to the stupas. These arches were decorated with sculptures. The worshippers entered the stupa from the eastern archway and went round the mound, Later these stupas were adorned with various sculptures and inscriptions. Such decorated stupas can be seen in Amaravati and Shahji-ki-dheri in Peshawar in Pakistan.

You can Download Kerala: Towards Modernity Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 15 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 15 Kerala: Towards Modernity

Question 1.
The region in Kerala which was under the direct rule of the British.
Answer:
Malabar

Question 2.
The first book printed entirely in Malayalam?
Answer:
Samkshepavedantham

Question 3.
The person who prepared the first Malayalam Dictionary (Sabdakosam)?
Answer:
Amos Pathiri

Question 4.
The Founder of Samatwa Samajam?
Answer:
Vaikunta Warrier

Question 5.
The Founder of Sadhu Jana Paripalana Sangham?
Answer:
Ayyankali

Question 6.
The founder of Atmavidya Sangham?
Answer:
Vagbhatanandan

Question 7.
The leader who led the ‘Savarna Jadha’?
Answer:
Mannath Padmanabhan

Question 8.
Explain the growth in plantation crops in Kerala during the colonial period.
Answer:
An important change that happened during the colonial period in the economic system of Kerala is the growth in plantation crops. Europeans took the initiative to start new plantations and invest capital in them. The main plantations crops were tea, coffee, rubber, and cardamom. Plantations crops proved more successful in Travancore than in Malabar. There were some reasons for that. The soil and high land of Travancore were better than those of Malabar. Therefore plantations crops developed fast in Travancore. This helped the British to earn a lot of wealth. The tax collection system in Malabar was not good enough.

Question 9.
Point out the role played by missionaries in the modernization of Kerala and in its education.
Answer:
An important driving force behind the growth of Kerala Was its education. The contributions made by missionaries in this field are highly valuable. They played a big role in expanding education. In the first decade of the 19th century, the London Mission Society (LMS) and Church Mission Society (CMS) started working in Travancore.

Rev. Mead was a missionary of CMS, who devoted his entire life in expanding education here. In 1817 the CMS College and a seminary were founded at Kottayam. To encourage women’s education, the missionaries established a grammar school and other schools.

The first school in Kochi was established in 1818 in Mattanchery. A missionary named Rev. Dowson was its founder.

At the same time, Rev Twinkle Tab, a Spanish Missionary in the Salvation Army founded English schools in the southern parts, including Nagercoil.

It was Basil Evangelical Mission (BEM) that spread education in Malabar. In 1848, they established a primary school in Kallai and in 1856, another school at Thalassery.

The contributions made by the Christian missionaries encouraged the governments of Kerala to take up education more seriously. In 1817, the ruler of Travancore, Gauri Parvati Bai, started free, compulsory primary education. In many areas of Travancore, schools were established. In 1839, during the reign of Swathi Thirunal, the first English school was begun. Another school was started in Thalassery.

Question 10.
Make a list of reforms that were brought about in the three regions of Kerala.
Answer:
Malabar

• District and Provincial courts were established.
• A chain of roads was made.
• In Ancharakandi, a spice garden was established.
• Many cloth and tile factories were founded.
• Kozhikode, Thalassery, Kannur Municipalities came into existence.
• Railway link was established with other areas of the country.
• In Nilambur a teak grove was established.
• To bring timber, a canal was made (e.g. Kanoli Canal).
• Timber business was encouraged.

Kochi

• Lower Courts and Huzur Courts were founded.
• All important Devaswoms were brought under the government.
• In 1845, slavery was banned.
• The survey of the land was made and taxes were fixed.
• Railway lines were made.
• Established Health, Agriculture and Fisheries departments.
• Kochi Tenant (Leasing) Law was passed.
• A Staff Selection Board was established.

Travancore

• Owners of land were given ‘pattayams’ showing details of the land.
• Slavery was banned in 1812.
• Renewed judiciary by founding 5 district courts and 1 Appeal Court.
• In 1811, the administration of Dewaswoms was taken over by the Government.
• Improved coinage, communication, agriculture and trade.
• Banned feudal conventions like “talavari” and “Uzhiyam”.
• In 1888, a Law-Making Council with 8 members was formed.
• Founded, many factories, electrification schemes, canals and post office?

Question 11.
The British brought some changes in the laws of Kerala. Find them out.
Answer:
In the system of law that the British brought, there were Western legal thoughts and concepts. They founded a chain of civil and criminal courts. They made sure that principles like the Rule of Law and Equality before Law were enforced. They also made a united legal code that included the laws of the land.

Question 12.
What made Pazhassiraja fight against the British? Write about the various stages of the Pazhassi Revolt.
Answer:
The Pazhassi Revolt was one of the most significant revolts in South India against the British. The British had established their authority over Malabar. Their wrong attitude to justice caused the Revolt. Keralavarma Pazhassiraja was a member of the Kottayam Dynasty of Malabar. In the beginning, he was in friendly terms with the British. In the Mysore wars, he even helped them. As a reward for his help, the British granted him the right to collect taxes from people.

But when Malabar came under their authority, the British forgot this promise. The right to collect taxes was given to an uncle of Pazhassi, the King of Kurumbanad. This King charged the people heavy taxes and used very cruel methods to get the money from them. It was in this context that Pazhassi rebelled against the British.

There were two stages in the Pazhassi Revolt. The 1st stage is from 1793 to 1797. Pazhassi started his revolt by preventing the tax collection for the British. Pazhasi’s army consisted of Muslim and Nair farmers and members of Kurichi tribe. It strongly withstood the attacks by the Company’s army. Pazhassi ‘ requested the help of Mysore to drive away the British from Wayanad. The British army was continuously defeated and in 1797, it withdrew from Wayanad, making an agreement with Pazhassi. With this, the first stage ended. The 2^nd stage of the Revolt started in 1800.

The reason was the move of the British to take over Wayanad. With the help of the Kurichis and Kurumbars in his army, Pazhassi withstood the attacks. Finally, Wellesley defeated Pazhassi in a bitter battle. Pazhassi still continued his resistance. But an army under Thomas Harvey Bebar, a sub-collector of Thalassery, defeated Pazhassi on 30 November 1805, In the battle, Pazhassi lost his life.

Question 13.
There were strong uprisings against the British in Travancore and Kochi. In the context of this statement, describe the anti-colonial activities of Veluthampi Dalava and Paliathacchan.
Answer:
After occupying Malabar, the attention of the British turned to Kochi and Travancore. They tried to establish their political and commercial interests in these places. In 1800, the Company appointed Col. Macaulay as the Resident of Travancore and Kochi. Macaulay started controlling the internal affairs of these native states. By this, the rulers lost their sovereignty.

Veluthampi was the chief minister (Dalawa) of Travancore. In 1805, the British signed a friendship treaty with Travancore. Through this, the Resident got the power to interfere in the internal affairs of the state, which lost its political freedom. He insisted that the tribute which the state owed to the Company should be paid within a certain time, without giving any consideration to the financial difficulties facing the state. One man named Mathu Tharakan owed a lot of money to the state as tax arrears. Velu Thampi Dalawa ordered to confiscate his property. But Macaulay interfered and canceled the order of the Dalawa. All these incidents prompted the Dalawa to embark on an armed conflict against the Company.

Paliathacchan was the Prime Minister of Kochi. He had enmity with Macaulay. Veluthampi Dalawa made a secret agreement with Paliathacchan. They also secretly contacted the French in Mauritius and the Zamorin of Kozhikode and requested them to give their support in their fight against the Company. In 1808 the combined armies of Travancore and Kochi attacked the residence of Macaulay in Kochi. The Resident escaped in a British ship.

As the revolt was in progress the Dalawa reached Kundara. He issued a proclamation on 11 January 1809 asking the people to join him against the British. This is called ‘Kundara Proclamation’ (Kundara Vilambaram). It is considered as an important document showing the fight of South India against colonization.

The British hit back. They attacked Kochi. Paliathacchan withdrew from the revolt by signing a treaty with the British. The British persuaded the Travancore King to remove Velu Thampi from his post. Unnini Thampi became the new Dalawa. The new Dalawa asked the police, to arrest Velu Thampi. A reward was declared for catching him. Velu Thampi took refuge in a house at Mannadi. When the combined forces of the British and Travancore surrounded the house, Velu Thampi committed suicide. He did not want to be caught alive and insulted. With this, the heroic resistance against the British ended in Travancore.

Question 14.
Kerala witnessed a silent but comprehensive social revolution in the 19th and 20th centuries. Evaluate the Social Reformation Movements in Kerala in the context of this statement.
Answer:
In the 19^th century, in Kerala, there were many religious superstitions, rituals, and conventions. There were also social injustices and economic injustices.
The Feudal lords suppressed the farmers. The Upper Castes ill-treated the lower castes. This made the life of poor people miserable. There were so many illogical and even foolish practices related to menstruation, marriage, pregnancy, and death. Slavery also existed here.

• The Kerala Brahmins received a lot of privileges.
• The lower caste people did not have a good position
  in society. The Upper Caste people controlled their modes of dress, freedom to travel and entry into temples.
• There were untouchability and pollution rules. In Travancore and Kochi, government jobs were not given to people of lower classes.

It is in this social background that the Social Reformers started their fight against the ills of society. Although all-India Movements like Arya Samajam and Theosophical Society had their branches in Kerala, their influence was very little here. Here the social revolution was the result of local Movements. Here are some Social Reformists that worked in Kerala in the 19^th and 20^th centuries.

Vaikunda Swamikal: He was bom in 1808, in the . village called Sastamkotta Vila near Kanyakumari. He started Samatwa Samajam’.

He published: ‘AkilattirattuAmmanai’and ‘Arul Nool’.

Reforms:

• For the first time, he started ‘Kannadi Prathishta’ in South India.
• His faith was called the way of the father (“Ayyavazhi”).
• He objected to all kinds of discrimination and stood for social equality.
• He objected to priesthood, idol worship, and animal sacrifice. He worked for the freedom of the lower castes and the welfare of women.

Sri Narayana Guru: Hewas born in the village of Chempazhanthi in Thiruvananthapuram district, in 1854. He founded the Sri Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam.

He published: “Atmopadesa Sathakam”, “Daiva Sathakam”. “Darsanamala”, “ Siva Sathakam” and “Navamanjari”.

Reforms:
Worked for the ending of superstitions and caste discriminations. He encouraged people to take up Western education, trade, and business enterprises.
He made the famous slogan “One Jati, One Religion, One God, for Man”.
He raised his voice against the control by Upper Castes. Shocking the conservatives, he did ‘Siva Pratishta’andAruvipuram.

Chattambi Swamikal: He was born in 1853 at the village of Kollur in Trivandum district. He published ‘Prachina Malayalam’, ‘Adibhasha’ and ‘Vedadikara Nirupanam’.

Reforms:

• He objected Jati and other illogical social rituals.
• He challenged the monopoly of Brahmins to study Vedas.
• Objected to the animal sacrifices in temples.
• He contributed a lot to Malayalam Literature and language.

Ayyankali : He was bdrn in 1863 at Venganur in Trivandum. His Organization was Sadhu Jana Paripalana Sangham. ‘

Reforms:

• He fought for freedom to travel and education for the lower classes.
• He opposed the Jati System. He organized labour protests and agriculture boycotts to get lower-class students admission in public schools.
• Against the restrictions placed on the mode of dress by lower-class people, he organized the ‘Kallumala Protest’. He asked people to break and throw away the. Kallumala’.

Vakkom Abulkhader Moulavi: He was born in 1873, at Vakkom in Chirayinkeezhu.taluk. He made the Travancore Muslim Mahajana Sabha.

He published: Swadesabhimani (edited by K. Ramakrishna Pillai), Al-Islam (An Arabic-Malayalam Magazine).

Reforms:

• He is the architect of the modernization of Kerala Muslims. He asked the Muslims to give up all anti- Islamic rituals.
• He asked the Muslims to get a Western education and to take part in Movements for development.
• He was the founder and owner of Swadeshabhimani Newspaper.

Vagbhatanandan: Hewas born at Patyam in 1885. He founded ‘Atmavidya Sangham’. He published Abhinava Keralam (Magazine), Atmavidya Kahalam (Journal), Sivayogavilasam (Magazine).

Reforms:

• Acknowledged the right of the lower classes to enter temples.
• Showed interest in the economic progress of the lower classes,
• He took active interest in Agricultural Movements.
• He opposed Jati and idol worship. He encouraged Yuktichintha and critical thinking. He was interested in prohibition (of alcohol).

Mar Kuriakose Elias Chavara : He was born in 1805, in the village Kainakari in Kuttanad.

He published: ‘Atmanuthapam’, “Idayariatakangal’, ‘Dhyanasallapangal’ and ‘Nalagamangal’.

Reforms:

• He founded many schools in Central Kerala. He encouraged Sanskrit education. He opened a Sanskrit school at Mannanam, in 1846.
• The founded orphanages for the poor and old people.
• He encouraged the education of dalits. He funded two schools for them.
• He started St. Joseph’s Printing press at Mannanam.
  It was the first indigenous printing press in Kerala.

V.T. Bhattathirippad: He was born in 1896 at Mezhathur.

He published: “Adukkalayil Ninnum Arangathekku” and “Kannirum Kinavum”.

Reforms:

• He fought against the discrimination against the Namboodiri women and widows who had to suffer a lot because of insults and ostracism.
• He opposed dowry and the marrying of young girls to old men.

Question 15.
Women also made a lot of contributions to the Social Reformation Movements of Kerala. Explain with examples.
Answer:
Women have given priceless contributions to the Social Reformation Movements of Kerala. Parvati Nenminimangalam, Arya Pallam, Sarada Amrnal, K.C. Narayani Amma Kalikkutty Asatty etc. did a lot to awaken women and raise their social status. They also worked hard for the removal of social evils that plagued the Kerala society. They helped in the removal of the Jati system, increased women’s education, did a lot for women empowerment and social justice, the prosperity of labourers and farmers, thinking with reason, use of public space and the uplifting of the Dalit community.

Question 16.
Describe the fight for a democratic society in Kerala and how the Shanar Agitation (Channar Lahala), Vaikom Satyagraha and Guruvayur Satyagraha helped in that fight.
Answer:
There were many social evils in Kerala. There was control based on taste. Even basic human rights were denied to some castes. Human dignity did not mean anything to the Upper Classes. Against such injustice, some popular movements worked hard. Here are some of the most important movements.

Shanar Agitation: This was one of the early fights against social injustice. This took place in Southern Travancore. This is also called ‘Melmundu samara’. Women of the Channar Community were not allowed to cover the upper part of their bodies with any doth or dress. Then, when Col. Monroe was the Diwan, he issued an order allowing the Channar women (Nadar) to wear a dress if they became Christians.
The Channar women were not satisfied with this. They started appearing in the public wearing shawls like women of the Upper Classes. The Upper-Class Hindus did not like it. They attacked the Channar women, who retaliated. Finally on 26 July 1859, the government issued a royal edict removing restrictions on the dressing.

Vaikom Satyagraha: This is the first famous public protest against untouchability. This protest was organized forgetting the right to use the paths near the. Vaikom Temple by lower caste Hindus. The leaders of this Satyagraha were T.K. Madhavan, Mannath Padmanabhan, C.V. Kunjuraman, K. Kelappan, and K.P. Kesava Menon.

An important event connected with the Vaikom Satyagraha is a procession of High Caste Hindus organized by Mannath Padmanabhan. The Procession wenttoTrivandum and met Maharani Sethulaxmi Bai and presented their request to her.

The Vaikom Satyagraha and the Savama Procession (Jatha) helped in forming positive public opinion regarding Temple Entry to all Castes. Finally, Gandhi interfered and the protest was successfully concluded. All the paths, except two, around the Vaikom Temple, were opened for use by all kinds of people.

Guruvayur Satyagraha: This was a milestone in the social reform movement of Kerala. It was a great event against untouchability. This protest was begun with the demand that all Hindus should be allowed to worship in the temple. The Guruvayur temple was under the control of the Kozhikode Zamorin and only Upper Caste Hindus could worship there.

The Satyagraha started on 1 November 1931. K. Kelappan and Mannath Padmanabhan led the protest. Kelappan started a fast unto death in front of the temple.

Some fanatic Upper-Class Hindus attacked volunteers like A.K. Gopalan and P. Krishna Pillai. On 2 October 1932, on the advice of Gandhi, the Satyagraha was ended. An opinion poll was conducted in Ponnani Taluk to find out public opinion about the issue. Most of the people supported temple entry by lower caste Hindus also. Although results did not come immediately, the Satyagraha helped in forming public opinion in favour of Temple Entry by all manners of Hindus.

Question 17.
Agitation against untouchability continued in Kerala even after independence. Explain with examples.
Answer:
Agitation against untouchability had to continue in ‘ Kerala even after independence. Paliyam Satyagraha ‘ was one such agitation:
In Kochi, there were many temples in front of the houses of the Upper Caste Hindus. Lower Caste Hindus were denied entry there. Paliathacchan was the Prime Minister of Kochi. His, house was in Chennamangalam. Lower Caste Hindus tried to walk on the road in front of his house and this; brought about big clashes. It was in these circumstances the Paliam Satyagraha was started. This was done jointly by the organizations like State Praja Mandalam, Communist Party, and S.N.D.P. Yogam.

They started to agitate in front of the Paliam Family to get the street open for all. On 4 December 1947, C. Kesavan inaugurated the Satyagraha. The government used force to suppress the agitation. One of the leaders of the agitation, A.G. Velayudhan, was killed and the Satyagraha was suspended for some time, in March 1948. In April 1948, the government issued orders regarding Temple Entry for all. With this, all could use the public streets.

Question 18.
Discuss the formation of Malayali Being and the United (Aikya) Kerala Movement.
Answer:
The Malayalam language played a big role in the cultural unity of people from Travancore, Kochi, and Malabar. The roots of the Malayan Being based on language and region could be traced to “Leelathilakam”, a grammar book of the 14th century. It talks about a community that speaks Malayalam.

In fact, the concept of ‘Malayali Being’ (Individuality or Personality) was formed at the end of the 19th ‘ century. The spread of modern education was the reason for that. It gave the idea of a region where people spoke the same language.

The Printing technology and the founding of local language newspapers also helped in this concept. There was a practice of appointing outsiders to do the work in Government offices of Kerala. In 1891, a mass petition (memorandum) signed by 10,028 persons was submitted against this practice. It was called the Malayali Memorial. This was a sign of new awareness.

The National Movement gained momentum at the beginning of the 20ttl century. The concept of Malayali Being also grew with this. This concept spread beyond the boundaries of native states of Travancore, Kochi and Malabar and the need for a unified region was felt, In 1921, Kerala Pradesh Congress Committee (KPCC) was formed on the basis of language. It represented people from Travancore, Kochi, and Malabar.

The all-Kerala political meeting under Congress was summoned at Ottappalam in 1921. It was the first meeting in which representatives from Travancore, Kochi, and Malabar jointly participated. The desire for the Malayali Being was expressed in the book titled “Onnekal Kodi Malayalikal” by EMS Namboodiripad.

In April 1947, there was a United Kerala Meeting at Thrissur under the chairmanship of K. Kelappan. It passed a resolution demanding a United Kerala. On 1 July 1949, the State called “Thiru-Kochi” was formed combining Travancore and Kochi. It was an important step for the formation of United Kerala. The dream of a State of Kerala was fulfilled by the State Re-Organizing Committee under Sayed Fasal Ali. It recommended the formation of Kerala State uniting Travancore, Kochi, and Malabar. On 1 November 1956, Kerala State officially came into being.

You can Download Kinship, Caste and Class Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 3 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class (Early Societies)

Question 1.
Who prepared the critical edition of Mahabharata?
Answer:
V.S. Sukthanker

Question 2.
Which is the most important book in Dharmasutra (Dharmasatra)?
Answer:
Manusmriti

Question 3.
What is the mode of traditional love marriage?
Answer:
Gandharva Marriage.

Question 4.
Which is the Veda in which ‘Purushasuktam’ is found?
Answer:
Rigveda

Question 5.
Who was the archaeologist that made excavations based on Mahabharata?
Answer:
B.B. Lai

Question 6.
Who is the author of “Kunti O Nishadi”?
Answer:
Masheshwata Devi

Question 7.
What does‘Kulam” indicate?
Answer:
Families

Question 8.
Who is the god of war and rain?
Answer:
Indra

Question 9.
Marriage in the same unit is called:
Answer:
‘Swagana’ marriage.

Question 10.
From where did the Sakas come to India?
Answer:
Central Asia

Question 11.
Match the items in column Awith those in Column B.

Answer:

Question 12.
What is Mahabharata? Write a note.
Answer:
It is the longest epic in the world. It has more than one lakh slokas. This is the richest book in the Indian subcontinent. It took nearly a thousand years to write it, starting from 500 BC.
The central theme of Mahabharata is the conflict between Kauravas and Pandavas. This book talks about a number of social classes and their rules and regulations. The main characters of the story followed these rules as heeded. Any moving away (deviation) from these rules created conflicts.

Question 13.
What are the differences between ‘swagana’ marriage and ‘anyagana’ marriage?
Answer:
Swagana marriage means marrying within one’s own gana or group. This can be relatives, classes or castes and people living in the same place.
Anyagana marriage shows it is a marriage outside one’s gana-group.

Question 14.
How did clans (family groups) come into existence?
Answer:
Right from 1000 BC, the Brahmins began to divide people into clans or classes. Each clan was given a name of a Vedacharya. Members of that clan were considered his followers. There were two important rules regarding the clans:

1. A woman leaves the clan of her father and accepts the clan of her husband.
2. Members of one clan, can’t marry members of the same clan.

The Brahmin laws regarding the clans were not obeyed by all people. Rulers like the powerful Satavahanas, who ruled parts of Western India between 2^nd century BC and 2^nd century AD, did not follow the Brahmin laws. The wives of the Satavahana kings retained their fathers’ clan name. The clan names like ‘Gautama’, Vasishta’, etc. were of their fathers.

Question 15.
Describe the patriarchal order.
Answer:
From 6 century BC, most Indian Dynasties followed the patriarchal system. It was a male-dominant system. After the death of the father, only the sons were entitled to his property. If the father was a king, the right to the crown belonged to the sons. This patriarchal system played a big role in marriage.

Question 16.
To enforce the Caste System the Brahmins used some strategies. Explain.
Answer:
By the end of the Vedic period, the Caste system became very strict. Brahmins used the caste system to ensure their supremacy in society. They claimed that this system was divinely ordained. The divine origin of the caste system was emphasized in the Dharmasastra also.

• The highest position in the caste system was given to Brahmins by the Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras. The untouchables were placed at the bottom of the ladder.
• The caste of a person was based on birth.

The Brahmins did all they could to make people follow the caste system. They formulated three techniques,

1. They propagated that the caste system is ordained by god.
2. They asked the kings to strictly enforce this system in their countries.
3. They tried to convince people that one’s class and caste are decided by birth.

Question 17.
What were the duties of Chandalas?
Answer:
Manusmriti has detailed the duties of the Chandalas. They should live outside the village. They can use only the discarded pots and pans. They should wear ornaments made of iron and clothes of the dead. They could not walk in the towns and villages at night. It was their duty to dispose of the dead bodies of those who had no relatives. They also had to work as executioners.

Question 18.
Who is the real author of Mahabharata? Assess the various viewpoints.
Answer:
One of the responsibilities of the scholars was the preparation of a critical edition of Mahabharata. This hugely challenging scheme was accepted by the handarkar Oriental Research Institute. This scheme began in 1919 under the leadership of the Sanskrit scholar V.S. Sukthanker. Dozens of scholars took part in this s big scheme. The work went on in good order, strictly following the scientific method.

Before embarking on this project, the scholars under Sukthanker collected as many manuscripts as they could get from different parts of India. After that, they compared the slokas in different manuscripts. They then chose the common slokas found in all versions. Then they published them in different volumes running into more than 13,000 pages. It took them 47 years to complete this task. Two things became clear from this project.

First of all, there were common features in the Sanskrit version of the story. There are evidences for this from the manuscripts collected from all over India, from Kashmir and Nepal in the North and Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the South. The second thing is that there were regional variations in the story. This happened centuries ago and the books became popular. All these differences are shown as footnotes and appendices, in the main book.

More than half of the entire book is devoted to these differences. The social history of India is made up of some very complex processes. We are to understand these processes from the Sanskrit books written by Brahmins. It was the historians of the 19^th and 20^th centuries that looked into the problems of social history. Therefore they took these books on their face value. Later the scholars also began to study the books written in Prakrit and Tamil.

It is the ideas in the Sanskrit books that are generally approved as authentic. But sometimes they have been questioned or rejected. When we consider how the social history was reconstructed, we should also remember that there were many differences even among scholars.

Question 19.
What are the exceptions of the patriarchal system?
Answer:
There were some exceptions and differences to the patriarchal system. If a family did not have male children, the brothers of the king would have the right to the crown. In some circumstances, other relatives also claimed the crown. On very rare occasions even women claimed authority and property as in the case of Prabhavati Gupta.

1. The patriarchal system did not limit itself to royal families.
2. Brahmins, people in high positions and rich people also followed this system.

Question 20.
According to Manusmriti, who are the heirs to the property of the dead father?
Answer:
Manusmriti says that the paternal property should be divided among the sons after the death of the parents. He said that the eldest son should be given a bigger share. But female children had no right to these properties. However, women were allowed to keep the gifts they received at the time of their wedding.

Later such gifts went to their children. Husbands had no right over these things. At the same time, women were not allowed to keep family property or expensive items without the knowledge of their husbands.

Manusmriti says that there are 7 ways for men to earn wealth: hereditary property, property that one makes, property that is bought, confiscated property, deposits, profession and property received from benefactors. Six ways are suggested for women to earn wealth, wealth received through pledge by fire, wealth received through marriage, wealth received because of affection, wealth got from father, mother or brother, wealth got as gifts, and the riches given by the loving husband.

Question 21.
What is meant by Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras? Who upholds them?
Answer:
With the coming of the new towns and cities, social life became more complex. People from far and near began to come to the urban centres to sell their products and get their needs. It also gave the people an opportunity to exchange ideas. Then they started questioning the old faiths and rituals. To face these challenges, the Brahmins formulated a code of conduct.

The rules that people had to keep in their day-to-day life were included in this code. These rules were to be rigidly observed by the common people, but only less rigidly by Brahmins. From 500 BC, these rules were published as Sanskrit books. They were known as Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras.

Question 22.
Who was Gandhari? What advice did she give Duryodhana?
Answer:
Gandhari was the mother of Kauravas. Duryodhana was her eldest son. The Mahabharata talks about the advice given by Gandhari to Duryodhana when the battle between the Kauravas and Pandavas became certain. She advised him to establish peace between the two groups.

This is what she said: “By establishing peace, you will be showing your” obedience to your father, me and your benefactors. It is the wise man who can control his senses that will guide his country.

Greed and anger takes a person away from his achievements. A king that can defeat these two enemies can conquer the entire world. My son, enjoy this earth with the Pandavas who are wise and fit to be leaders. War does not bring any good, morality or profit. Don’t prepare your mind for war.”

Question 23.
Explain the relation between the Satavahana rulers and the status of women.
Answer:
Names of many kings belonging to different generations of Satavahanas have been found on the stone inscriptions. The Satavahana kings used the title king and the word ‘Putra’ at the end of their names. Putra is a word in Prakrit language, it means son. Gautami-Putra means the son of Gautami. The names ‘Gautami’ and ‘Vasati’ are the feminine forms of the ’ tribes ‘Gotame’ and ‘Vasishta’which were named by the Vedacharyas.

Question 24.
What is the meaning of the word ‘Vanik’ mentioned in Sanskrit books? Were they merely Vaisyas?
Answer:
Vanik was the word used in Sanskrit books and inscriptions to mean traders. According to the Sastras, trading is the profession of the Vaisyas. But in the plays like Mrichhakadikam (written the 4itl century AD) by Sudrakan, some highly complex situations are seen.

Charudattan, who is the hero of the play, is shown both as a Brahmin and also a trader. In one inscription belonging to the 5th century, it is shown that two brothers, shown as Kshatriya- Vanikar, giving a donation for the building of a temple.

Question 25.
Who are called Chandalas by the Brahmins?
Answer:
Brahmins considered certain tasks as impure. Burying the dead bodies of both people and animals was considered such a task. People who did this kind of work we’re called Chandalas. They were at the bottom of the caste ladder. The upper caste people believed that even seeing such people made them impure.

Question 26.
The stories of Mahabharata are divided into two groups by historians. Was the division very strict? Explain.
Answer:
The contents of Mahabharata have been usually grouped by historians into two parts – narrative arid didactic. In the narrative part, there are stories. In the didactic part, there are suggestions regarding social rules and regulations.

This is not a very strict division. Even in the didactic portion, there are stories. In the same way, there are suggestions in the portion of stories. Whatever be the case, historians agree that Mahabharata is a dramatic and touching story. They feel that the didactic part was added to the Mahabharata during the post-Mauryan period.

Question 27.
Discuss the differences between Varna and Jati.
Answer:
The Brahmin books speak about the social divisions called Jati. According to the thinking of Brahmins, birth is the basis for Jati, just like it is the basis for caste. There are only 4 Varnas. But the number of Jatis has no limit. Whenever the Brahmin chiefs met new groups which did not fit in with the 4 Varnas, they considered them as Jatis.

For example, they categorized the Nishadas living in the forests and the goldsmiths (Suvamakarar) as Jatis, as they were not fitting into the Varna System.

Question 28.
Property rights were decided by gender. Explain.
Answer:
It was gender the decided property rights. Evidence for this is available from a sub-story in the Mahabharata. There was constant rivalry between the Pandavas and the Kauravas. With the intention of cheating the Pandavas, Duryodhana invited Yudhishtira for a game of dice.

In the game, Dharmaputra mortgaged gold, elephants, chariots, slaves, army, treasury, country, the wealth of the subjects, brothers arid even himself. He lost all these. Finally, he even pledged his wife Panchali to continue with the game. This part of the story makes the importance of gender in matters of property.

Question 29.
“Not all families are alike.” Evaluate this statement.
Answer:
Family is the basic unit of the society. But not all families are alike. They differ in the number of members or size, mutual relations, and the different kinds of work they do and their responsibilities. The members of the family share their food and other facilities.

They live together and work together and follow certain rituals. Families are part of a large chain that is referred to as kinfolk. Relations in the family are natural and based on blood. In some communities, cousins are considered to be related by blood. But some others don’t think so.

Question 30.
What is special about Hastjnapur?
Answer:
In the first section of Mahabharata, Hastinapur is equated with the city of Devendra. This city was like a sea. There were hundreds of tall palatial buildings with their intricate gates and archways and plenty of small towers. The clouds hovered above them giving them a heavenly glow which made the city look like the city of Devendra.

Question 31.
According to the Sastras, only Kshatriyas could become kings. Do you think this rule was always kept? Justify your answer.
Answer:
According to the Sastras, only Kshatriyas could become kings. But many important dynasties did not belong to the class of Kshatriyas.

1. The Mauryas were not Kshatriyas. The Brahmin books consider them to be people belonging to. a lower class. Modern historians believe that the Mauryas were Vaisyas.
2. Sungas and Kannuas were Brahmins.
3. The Sakas that came from Central Asia were considered uncultured by the Brahmins.
4. Satavahana Kings claimed they were Brahmins: The most famous Satavahana King, Gautami Putra Satakarni called himself ‘Eka-Brahmin’ He also claimed to be the one who destroyed the pride of the Kshatriyas.

Question 32.
People who did not accept the ideas of the Brahmins were branded as uncultured and equal to animals. Critically evaluate this statement.
Answer:
There were many people in the society who did not accept the ideas of the Brahmins. Sanskrit books speak of these people, who were outside the circle of Brahmin influences, as uncultured, evil and equal to animals.

1. Forest dwellers, hunters, Nishadas, wandering shepherds, etc. were in this category.
2. People who could not speak Sanskrit were branded uncultured. They were looked upon with contempt. In spite of the mistreatment given to them, these people mutually shared their ideas and beliefs.
3. In some Mahabharata stories, the character of their relations can be seen clearly.

Question 33.
Through one legend in Sutta Pitaka, the social contract theory is explained. Describe the essence of this theory and evaluate its importance.
Answer:
Sutta Pitaka is a Buddhist book. There is a legend here. It says that man did not have a body that was full in shape. In the same way, the flora also had not developed completely. All the people lived in peace. They were happy and contented. They took only what they wanted from Nature. In short, it was an ideal society. But this state of things did not last long. Slowly it began to crack up: People became greedy, vengeful and deceitful.

This caused fights in the society. In this condition, people thought of electing an able person who could establish peace and drive away the mischief-makers. Since he was chosen by all the people, he was called Mahasamanthan. This theory has many levels of meaning:

1. It shows that kingship is something made by man. It came from a social contract According to that the king agreed to serve people. In return for his services, people agreed to give him taxes.
2. It acknowledges the act that people have a role in creating economic and social relations among men and in institutionalizing them.
3. It shows that since people created the system, they also have a right to change it when feel like changing it.

Question 34.
Archaeologist B.B. Lalmade extensive researches to find out the convergence between Mahabharata and real history. Give your views on the researches.
Answer:
In the Mahabharata, there are lively descriptions about the battles, forests, palaces, settlements and so on. Many historians have tried to find out the historicity of these descriptions. They are trying to find out how far the descriptions in Mahabharata are true to reality.

In 1951-52, B.B. Lal, a famous archaeologist, made extensive excavations in Hastinapur of Meerut in U.P. He tried to find out if this city is the same as the one mentioned in Mahabharata.

There is similarity in the name. Lai made excavations in the upper part of the Gangetic plain, where the country called Kuru was located. The Hastinapur mentioned in Mahabharata might have been the capital of the Kurus.

B.B. Lai found evidence of 6 levels of living houses (settlements) there. The 2^nd and 3^rd levels are especially important. The period of the 2^nd level settlement is from 12^th to 7^th century BC. Remains of houses have been found here. The walls were made of bamboos, covered with mud paste.

The period of the 3^rd level settlement is from the 6^th to 3^rdcentury BC. Lai found that the houses of this period were built with clay bricks and baked blocks. He also noticed the remains of drainages.

The findings of Lai do not conform to the descriptions of Hastinapur in Mahabharata. In Mahabharata, the city is described as a great city with hundreds of multiple story buildings and towers. The age described in the Itihasa is the same as that of the second level settlement. But here there are no indications of any big structure.

Therefore, historians think that the description of the city of Hastinapur in Mahabharata might have been added at a later date. There are also people who believe that the description came from somebody’s fertile imagination. They point out that there is no evidence to prove the description of Hastinapur as found in the Mahabharata.

Question 35.
“The growth of Mahabharata did not stop with the Sanskrit edition.” Justify this statement.
Answer:
The main feature of Mahabharata is its energy or vitality. With the writing of the Sanskrit edition, the growth did not stop. Different editions of the Itihasa have been written in different languages over centuries. Some special stories that originated or were popular among the local people also became part of the Itihasa.

Even the main plot of the Itihasa was restructured in many places. Many of the incidents in the Itihasa were depicted in statues and pictures, It gave themes to many performing arts like drama and dance.

The main story of the Mahabharata was rewritten by many writers in their works. ‘Yayati’ by V.S. Khandekar, ‘Randamoozham’by M.T. Vasudevan Nair and Kunti and Nishadin’by Maheshwata Devi are the chief among them. Maheshwata Devi is a famous Bengali writer.

She has received many awards including ‘Jnanapidom’. She is a famous writer who is known for raising her voice against exploitations of all kinds. From the main story in the Mahabharata, she made some parallel stories. She answered many questions that Mahabharata kept silent about.

Question 36.
Eight types of marriages are mentioned in the Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras. Which are they and what are their special features?
Answer:

1. Brahma Marriage – In this type, the adorned bride is given in marriage to a wise, gentlemanly bridegroom.
2. Prajapatya Marriage – Here the father gives his daughter in marriage without any dowry. This is an altered version of Brahma marriage.
3. Arsha Marriage – Here the father of the girl gives his daughter to the bridegroom from whom he gets a pair of bulls or cows.
4. Daiva Marriage-Here the bridegroom is a priest.
5. Asura Marriage – Here the bridegroom gives the bride price to the.father of the bride for getting the girl married to him.
6. Gandharva Marriage – This is love marriage in the traditional way.
7. Rakshasa Marriage – The bride is kidnapped from her house and then she is given to the bridegroom.
8. Paisacha Marriage – This was very rare. Here the man molests the girl and since she has lost her virginity she is forced to marry the molester.

Question 37.
What was the reason for the existence of polyandry?
Answer:
Because of frequent wars, there was a shortage of men, as many rru&i died during wars. There were many more women than men. Polyandry was the result of such a crisis. Early sources make it very clear that polyandry was not a widespread practice.

Question 38.
There are rules regarding the 4 Vamas (Classes) and about their work in the Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras. Describe them based on the Purushasuktam.
Answer:
The Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras specify the kind of work the 4 classes have to do.

1. The Brahmins were to learn and teach Vedas, perform Yagas and give and receive alms.
2. The Kshatriyas were to fight in wars, protect people, ensure justice, learn Vedas, get Yagas done and give alms.
3. The Vaisyas were also to learn Vedas, get Yagas done and give alms. In addition, they were to practice agriculture, do trading, and keep sheep.
4. The Sudras were to do only one thing – serve the other 3 Classes.

Question 39.
“The Mahabharata is a highly energetic book.” Based on this statement, prepare an essay about Mahabharata.
Answer:
When talking about books, historians take certain aspects into consideration.

1. Their language, whether it is in Pali, Prakrit, Tamil or Sanskrit.
2. Their genre – Are they mantras or stories?
3. Their authors, their viewpoints, the ideas that prompted them to write the book.
4. Their intended readers. Writers write books keeping in view the interests of their intended readers.
5. Their time and place of publication.

Only after looking into these things, the historians assess the contents of the books and their historical importance. It is a difficult task. In the case of a complicated book like Mahabharata, their task becomes all the more difficult.

Language and Content of Mahabharata: It is available in many languages. The Sanskrit of Mahabharata is simpler than that of the Vedas and Prasashtis for example, the Allahabad Prasashti. That is why many people could read and understand Mahabharata. Its simple language made it more popular.

The contents are divided into two – narrative and didactic. In the narrative part, there are stories. In the didactic part, there are suggestions on social rules and regulations. The division is not very strict, as they overlap. Whatever be the case, Mahabharata is a fine story. It is believed that the didactic part was added after the Maurya period.

Mahabharata is qualified as an Itihasa of the early Sanskrit literature. Itihasa means ‘It – hasa’ -“Thus It Was”. That is why it is considered history. The biggest event in the Mahabharata is the Battle of Kurukshetra. Among historians, there are differing views about this Battle.

Some say it was a real fight between relatives. But there are people who think there was never such a battle. There is no proof at all about such a battle.

Authors and Dates: Historians differ in these. Traditionally, some people think Vyasa Maharshi wrote it. But modem historians think it was written by different writers. Initially, in Mahabharata there were only less than 10,000 slokas. But it grew into a huge book with more 100,000 slokas.

It is not possible for a single person to write such a huge book. It is also believed that it was written at different periods.The original story of Mahabharata was made by a group of poets, known as ‘Sutas’.

These Sutas accompanied the Khastriyas into the battlegrounds and sang about the exploits and victories of the soldiers. These stories orally passed from generation to generation. It is believed that the writing of Mahabharata began in the 5^thcentury BC. The Brahmins took the initiative for this. They collected orally transmitted stories and wrote them down.

The chiefdoms called Kuru and Panchalam (the story of Mahabharata is about these) were becoming independent countries then. The kings must have wanted their history to be properly recorded. These new countries had to fight a lot of battles. Those – battles also must have found their way into the main plot.

The period from 2^nd century BC to 2^nd century AD was another important stage in the writing of Mahabharata. It was a time when the adoration of Vishnu was getting popular. Krishna who is an important character in Mahabharata is known as an ‘avatar’ of Vishnu.

Between the 2^nd and 4^th century AD, didactic sections closely resembling Manusmriti were added to Mahabharata. Thus it grew into a book of 100,000 slokas. The search for Convergence: In the Mahabharata, there are lively descriptions about the battles, forests, palaces, settlements and so on. Many historians have tried to find out the historicity of these descriptions. They were trying to find out how far the descriptions in Mahabharata are true to reality.

In 1951-52, B.B. Lai, a famous archaeologist, made extensive excavations in Hastinapur of Meerut in U.P. He tried to find out if this city is the same as the one mentioned in Mahabharata. There is similarity in the name. Lai made excavations in the upper part of the Gangetic plain, where the country called Kuru was located. The Hastinapur mentioned in Mahabharata might have been the capital of the Kurus.
B.B. Lai found evidence of 6 levels of living houses (settlements) there.

The 2^nd and 3^rd levels are especially important. The period of the 2^nd level settlement is from 12^th to 7^th century BC. Remains of houses have been found here. The walls were made of bamboos, covered with mud paste, The period of the 3^rd level settlement is from the 6^th to 3^rd century BC. Lai found that the houses of this period were built with clay bricks and baked blocks. He also noticed the remains of drainages.

The findings of Lai do not conform to the descriptions of Hastinapur in Mahabharata. In Mahabharata, the city is described as a great city with hundreds of multiple story buildings and towers. The age described in the Itihasa is the same as that of the second level settlement. But here there are no indications of any big structure.

Therefore, historians think that the description of the city of Hastinapur in Mahabharata might have been added at a later date. There are also people who believe that the description came from somebody’s fertile imagination. They point out that there is no evidence to prove the description of Hastinapur as found in the Mahabharata.

You can Download Pre Modern Kerala Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 14 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 14 Pre Modern Kerala

Question 1.
Who is the author of Mooshaka Vansa Kavya?
Answer:
Athulan

Question 2.
What was the river basin area in the Tinais?
Answer:
Mamtham

Question 3.
The farmers who cultivate the land taken on lease are called?
Answer:
Karalar

Question 4.
What is Anchuvannam?
Answer:
A group of merchants

Question 5.
The capital of Perumals.
Answer:
Makothai

Question 6.
The author of Perumal Tirumozhi?
Answer:
KulasekharaAlwar

Question 7.
What was the name given to the Code of Conduct of the Perumals?
Answer:
Kacha

Question 8.
The Brahmin Committee that administered the Sankethams?
Answer:
Yogam

Question 9.
Who brought the ‘Cartaz’ system?
Answer:
The Portuguese

Question 10.
The ruler who defeated the Dutch in the Colachel Battle?
Answer:
Marthanda Varma

Question 11.
The Organizer of Thrissur Pooram?
Answer:
Saktan Thampuran

Question 12.
Write a brief note on the prehistoric period of Kerala.
Answer:
It is not certain when people began to live in Kerala. It is believed that right from the Stone Age period, people lived here. In the Palaeolithic period, people were hunters and collectors of food. In the Mesolithic period, they made their living by catching fish. In short, prior to the Neolithic period, people made their living by hunting, collecting food and fishing.

In the Neolithic period, agriculture started all over the world. This brought revolutionary changes in the life of people. Although agriculture started in Kerala at this time, people continued hunting and fishing.

Question 13.
What are the professional groups connected with temples?
Answer:
There were many groups of people working with temple matters. Here are the most important of them:

1. Sabhayar – They were members of the Sabha and were the most powerful Brahmins.
2. Bhattas and Chattirs – the Brahmin scholars and students connected with the temple salas.
3. Tantrikal-They were the Santiadikal

There were also non-Brahmins working in the temples. These are the important ones:

1. Pothuval – General Secretary of the Temple
2. Akapothuval – In-charge of the internal matters of the temple.
3. Purapothuval – In-charge of the external matters of the temple
4. Variam – Committee for the supervision of temple work; Thottavariam means Committee supervising the garden.
5. Kottikal – Those who beat the chenda (tom-toms, or drums).
6. Nanka/Nakachi – Female Dancers
7. Chakyars-Male dancers
8. Adikkumavar-Sweepers
9. Wakidumavar-Distribute firewood

Question 14.
HowwasTamizhakam divided into different Tinais?
Answer:
In the Sangham Boetfe, five Tinais of different regions are mentioned.
They are Kurinchi, Mullai, Palai, Marutham and Neithal.
Kurinchi is the mountainous region, Mullai is the forest area, Palai is the dry place, Marutham is the agricultural land of the river basin, and Neithal is the shore. In the different Tinais different ways of earning livelihood existed.

Question 15.
What is Kaccam?
Answer:
We don’t have any clear records about the laws existing in the Perumal period. But we have some indications about the code of conduct existing then. This code of conduct is called ‘kaccam’. Temples and villages followed it. The most important kaccam was Moozhikkala Kaccam. Then there were four regional Systems known as Kadankat Kaccam, Thavaranur Kaccam, Sankaramangalathu kaccam, and Kaithavarathu Kaccam. The punishments for breaking the ‘kaccam’ are shown. They include ostracism, ousting from positions, confiscation of property and ostracising people from social and political matters.

Question 16.
Write about agricultural growth after the Perumal Era.
Answer:
The production of different crops continued even after the Perumal era. Some small changes, however, took place, until the 18^th century. In the wet soil with silt, in the compounds and lands around, agriculture was done. There was a considerable increase in agriculture. Paddy cultivation continued as before. It was the main food crop. Paddy was cultivated in the wet soil and in the low-lying areas between small hills and plateaus.

The evidences available in the Perumchellur and Kilimahur inscriptions show that rice cultivation was continued for long. From the Malayalam Books of the Middle Ages also we see that paddy was cultivated 2 or 3 times each year.

Different varieties of rice was cultivated. Kuruvachannel, Ponkali, Anakkadan, Cholan, Kadan, Modan, Killiyira and Viravittan varieties are mentioned in the book “Unnunili Sandesam”. By the 16^th century, all available wetlands were brought under cultivation. Agriculture was spread into the hillsides and valleys of small hills. The black soil fields between Kochi and Kollam were also used for cultivation.

Paddy was also imported from outside Kerala. After rice cultivation, the fields were used to plant banana. Pepper was a cash crop that was extensively cultivated at this period. It was grown in the compounds of households and also in the fields. There were no special groves for pepper. It was cultivated with other crops.

In ‘Sukasandesam’ written in the 14^th century, there is a description of the pepper vines climbing on coconut trees. Cardamom and Ginger were cultivated in the compounds of households. Turmeric was brought from Malabar. Nutmeg came from Kochi. Indigo came from Kollam. “Unniyachi Charitam” shows that indigo was sold in the markets. Cinnamon was also cultivated.

Coconut was an important item of cultivation. Coconuts were used for food and trade. In a Chinese book called “Daoyi Zhilue” written in the 14^th century, there is a description of the Kerala shore full of coconut trees. Fei Hsin, a Chinese Traveller of the 15^th century, has recorded that coconut was exported along with pepper, fish and area nut. By the 16^th century, coconut became an important trade item. By the 18th century, area nut farms spread all over Kerala. Area nut trees were found in compounds. There was a great demand for timber like teak and rosewood. Timber was collected from the forests and exported.

As the population was increasing, the cultivation of food crops had to be increased. The crops grown in the compounds were used for internal and external trade. Although there was cultivation of cash crops and food crops, a lot of land in Kerala was unfit for cultivation. It was the forests of Kerala that helped Kerala to have good economic strength.

Question 17.
What were the features of Swaroopams?
Answer:
Swaroopam was a political center of the 12^th century Kerala. It maintained a small army. They were called Ayirathavar, Pathinayirathavar, Padamalanayarand so on. Swaroopams had household deities.

There was something called ‘ariyittuvazhcha’. The eldest member of the family became the Moopan with elaborate rituals. The elevation to this status is called ariyittuvazhcha. It was also called ‘Hiranyagarbham’. During this time the rulers took some fancy titles. SwaroopamlTilid their own land. Their main income was from land. They also had political power over areas under their jurisdiction.

Question 18.
Explain the changes the European brought in the trade of Kerala.
Answer:
The Portuguese finished the monopoly that Arabs had in the Malabar Trade. By bringing Cartaz system they established their monopoly of sea trade, They got into trade agreements with the rulers of Kozhikode, Kannur, Kochi, and Kollam.

Question 19.
Describe the various reforms brought about by Marthanda Varma.
Answer:
One of the important steps he took was “Thnppadidanam”. On 3 January 1750, he dedicated the native state of Travancore as a donation to Sri Padmanabhan. By this Sri, Padmanabhan Swami became the owner and the king became his servant. With this Thrippadidanam, any mutiny and criticism against the king would be considered an anti-religious act.

Marthada Varma divided the country into many Revenue Units. The lowest unit was a village. The responsibility of the village administration was given to ‘pravarthiar’. A collection of villages was called “Mandapathu Vatikkal” It was under a manager, similar to a future tehsildar. Travancore was divided into 20 Mandapathu Vatikkals.
Marthanda Varma brought the system of presenting a yearly budget. It was called ‘Pathivu Kanakku’ (Regular accounts).

He organized a regular army. Soldiers were recruited from ordinary farmers. The farmers who served as soldiers were given tax exemption during their service period. This was known as ‘Irayili’. After retirement, soldiers were given a pension. It was called ‘Irayili aduthur’. To train the Travancore army, he got the assistance of a Dutch captain named De Lannoy.

Question 20.
What are ‘Granthavarikal? Name them.
Answer:
They are a great source for studying the history of Kerala of the Middle Ages. These are the collections of documents by which temples and dynasties transferred landed properties.

To establish one’s ownership of a property, only these documents were available. The following are the most important f them:

1. Mdthilakom Granthavari (Padmanabha Swami Temple)
2. Perumpadappu Granthavari (Kochi)
3. Kozhikodan Granthavari (Zamorins).
4. Vanjeri Granthavari
5. Koodali Granthavari

Question 21.
Write a note on Colechal Battle.
Answer:
Marthanda Varma conducted a series of wars against the Dutch. The Dutch made extensive preparations to fight with Marthanda Varma. A Dutch Army with cannons (huge guns) left Sri Lanka heading for Travancore. They landed at Colachel. They attacked arid captured places up to Kotar. Then the army moved to the fort of Marthanda Varma at Kaikalam. On 10 August 1741, the armies of the Dutch and Marthada Varma fought bitterly. The Dutch were routed. Many were taker) prisoners including Captain De Lannoy. Later he became the trainer, The Big Captain’, of Marthanda Varma’s army.

• The Colachel War did a lot of harm to the Dutch. It prevented their further growth and advancement.
• This was the first war in which a foreign army was defeated by a native king.

Question 22.
Evaluate the references found in Books of Literature and notes of foreign travelers regarding the progress in Kerala Trade.
Answer:
The surplus agricultural production here helped both internal and external trade. Things for daily use were exchanged in the local markets. These included rice, corn, vegetables, coconut oil, banana, and such things. There were daily markets, weekly markets, night markets and village markets for such exchanges. In the UnniChiruthevi Charitram, there is a description of a practical exchange center at Ayanarchira in the region of Valluvanad. Similarly, in “Unnunili Sandesam”, there is a description of a daily market in Karianad nearThiruvalla.

Question 23.
What are Swaroopams?
Answer:
Swaroopams were regions which enjoyed autonomy. They were controlled by strong matriarchal families. These big matriarchal families had occupied huge areas of land. Over these areas, the families had political and judicial authority. They were political power centers in those days.

Question 24.
In many parts of Central Kerala, there were Sankethams. What were they? Explain their structure and activities.
Answer:
Sanketham was another center of political power in Kerala. The Sankethams of temples and Brahmins were very famous. They are areas with semi-autonomous rule. In a Sanketham there would be one Brahmin temple and some villages around it. There were two types of Sankethams. a) Those founded by landowning Brahmins, b) Those founded by rulers to show their love and veneration for some deities or Brahmins.

Sankethams had a divine quality about them. Because of that, they were protected from wars and riots. Many Sankethams were administered by a Committee of Brahmins. These Committees were called Yogams.

In the Middle Ages in many parts of Kerala, Sankethams were in existence. K.P. Padmanabha Menon seems them as independent republics free from the control of the king. But the Vancheri Granthavari says that Sanketham was dependent on the nearby chiefs. For the formation of the Yogam, and for law and order problems they relied on the chiefs.
The property of Sanketam was protected by the local army. Such an army was called ‘Changatam’. In return for their services, they were given ‘kavalpanam’ (protection money), usually in the form of a share of the produce.

The spread of Swaroopam and Sanketam led to the growth of different kinds of landowning rights. It also caused the growth of agriculture – both cash crops and food crops. It also brought changes in the agricultural relations in places controlled by-laws relating to Jati Systems.

You can Download Understanding Partition Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 13 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 13 Understanding Partition (Politics, Memories, Experiences)

Question 1.
The law that brought separate constituencies for Muslims.
Answer:
Minto-Morley Reforms

Question 2.
Which Reformation Group was connected with the “Suddhi Movement”?
Answer:
Arya Samaj

Question 3.
Who prepared the Pakistan Resolution?
Answer:
Sikander Hayat Khan

Question 4.
The person who suggested the name Pakistan?
Answer:
Rehmat Ali

Question 5.
The director of the film‘Tamas’?
Answer:
Govind Nihlani

Question 6.
Do you agree with the view that the partition of India was a holocaust? Critically examine the issue.
Answer:
Holocaust means destruction and murder on a huge scale. During partition, large scale looting, murder, rape and arson were done. That is why Partition is called a holocaust.
The Nazis in Germany killed millions of Jews. Holocaust is used to refer to this mass murder. In this sense, the Partition of India also was a holocaust. The horrible things that happened in the Indian subcontinent make calling the Partition as a holocaust quite justifiable. Words like ‘Partition’ hide the seriousness of the killing and looting that went on during that time.

Question 7.
The anti-Indians in Pakistan and anti-Pakistanis in India were. the product of the Partition. Evaluate this statement.
Answer:
It is quite true that the anti-Indians in Pakistan and anti-Pakistanis in India were the product of the Partition. R.M. Murphy, a famous journalist, says that there are many anti-Hindus in Pakistan and anti- Muslims in India. They consider their opposite group as cruel, fanatical and vicious. Such misconceptions were in existence even before partition. But these beliefs were strengthened with the unfortunate happenings in 1947.

The voices of hared are still heard in both countries. When there are communal problems, anger and hatred come in the open. People mutually accuse each other, repeating the atrocities committed during the partition time. The policies of both India and Pakistan were based, to an extent, on these misconceptions.

Question 8.
The Partition is the central part of a long history. Based on this statement, explain the causes that led to the Partition and its outcomes.
Answer:
Some historians, both in India and Pakistan, believe that the Two-Nation Theory of Mohammed Ali Jinnah had actually originated in the Middle Ages. The two-nation theory stresses that the Hindus and Muslims of Colonial India are to separate nations. They show that difference has been in existence for centuries. The Partition of 1947 was just a climax for the long-standing rivalries.

These historians stress only rivalries. They do not see the friendship and cooperation that existed between them. Although there were differences between the two communities there was also the sharing of cultural and economic aspects.

Some scholars say that the Partition was the result of the communal politics that began in India in the beginning of the 20^th century. It was the separate constituencies allowed to the Muslims that caused such divisive thinking. Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909 allowed these separate constituencies. The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms expanded the concept still further. Separate constituencies helped the Muslims to elect their own representatives.

This was exploited by politicians. They started promoting religious thinking. Each politician, whether Hindu or Muslim, did some favours to the members of his community and thus gained acceptance among them. Their only purpose was to gain power by playing the religious card. Religious concepts began to influence politics. Enmity between religious groups grew.

Some incidents that took place in the first decades of the 20^th century also increased the tension between the two communities. In the 1920s and 30s, this enmity grew.

• Singing in front of the mosques, Save-the-Cow Movement, and the Suddhi Movement by Arya Samaj which tried to bring back coverts into other religions including Islam, made the Muslims unhappy.
• The growth of some Islamic Organizations like Tabligh (Islamic Preaching) enraged Hindus.
• Fanatics in both groups tried to organize their members with greater unity and solidarity. Opposing groups often clashed. This caused communal riots in many parts of the country.

Question 9.
What was the role played by the Congress Ministries in increasing the enmity between the Congress and the League?
Answer:
First elections to the vincial Assemblies were conducted in 1937. Only between 10 to 12% of the population had voting rights. The Congress won big victories. In 5 provinces, it had simple majority. In two provinces it had the highest number of seats. Thus Congress was able to form ministries in 7 out of 11 provinces. In two provinces there was coalition government.

In the Muslim Constituencies, the performance of the Congress was bad.

The performance of the Muslim League was very bad. It got only a small portion of the Muslim votes polled. In the North-West Frontier Province, it did not get even a single seat. In Punjab there were 84 Reservation seats. The League got only 2 out of these. In Sindh there were 33 Reservation seats. The League got 3.

Muslim League wanted to make a Coalition Ministry in United Province (present UP) by collaborating with the Congress. But since Congress had the simple majority. Congress refused League’s request. This increased the enmity between the Congress and League. League was now sure that in an untied India it would never get political power. The League started thinking that only a Muslim Party could look after the interests of the Muslims. It said that Congress was a Hindu Party.

Jinnah argued that League was the spokesperson for all Muslims. But this argument was not initially accepted. Only in 3 Provinces – United Province, Bombay and Madras – the League had some popularity. Its base was weak in Bengal, North-West Frontier Province and Punjab. (It is interesting to note that Pakistan was formed from these 3 Provinces.) Even in Sindh, League failed to form the government. League learned a lesson from this failure in the elections, It realized the importance of increasing its base and popularity among the Muslims. For that, it played the religious card.

In the meantime, Congress embarked on a programme to become more popular among Muslims. But it did not work. However, Congress tried to be a secular party. It began to propagate itself as the spokesperson for secularism. This secular stance of the Congress party frightened conservative Muslims and also some very rich Muslims who owned large estates.

Question 10.
The Partition was a sudden thing. What is your reaction to this statement? Explain with examples.
Answer:
Some believe that the Partition was a sudden affair. In 1940, even the League was not sure what it wanted. Initially, they wanted only “Muslim Majority Provinces with Autonomy”. But this simple demand grew into the demand for a separate nation in just 7 years. Nobody knew what the formation of a new nation implied or how it would affect the lives of the people in the future. Those who left their homes following the Partition were hoping that they would be able to return to their homes later when things settled.

Question 11.
What were the recommendations of the Cabinet Mission? How did the political parties receive them?
Answer:
These were the recommendations:

• Formation of an Indian Union including the British Provinces and the native states. India should remain one.
• Defence, Foreign Affairs and Communication should be handled by the Centre. Other matters may be administered by the Province and native states.
• The existing Provinces would be grouped into A, B, and C. In A group there will be Provinces with Hindu
  majority.
• In the B group, there will be Provinces of Muslim majority from the North West region. In Group C, Muslim Majority Provinces of the North East, including Assam, will be included.
• A Constitution-making Committee will be made. This Committee will be elected by the Provincial Assemblies.
• Until the Constitution is prepared, an Ad-hoc government will be formed in the Centre. It will consist of leaders of different political parties.
• Partition soon became inevitable. Most Congress leaders were against it. But they.had to finally agree to it They knew that although it was undesirable it was inevitable.
• There were only two people who vehemently opposed partition – Gandhi and Frontier Gandhi (Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan).

Question 12.
The Partition was an unavoidable tragedy. Do you think so? Compare the attitude of the Congress and Gandhiji about Partition.
Answer:
In an atmosphere that was tense and dangerous, Gandhiji came forward to establish peace and religious harmony among the warring people. He was 77 and all his life he had held fast to the principle of non-violence. He was ready to sacrifice everything he had for his principle. He believed that he could convince people to be peaceful. From the village of Noakhali in East Bengal, he travelled to the villages of Bihar trying to pacify people.

He also went to the slums of Calcutta and Delhi which were seriously affected by communal riots. He tried his best to prevent members of one community murdering the members of the other. Wherever he went he tried to build the confidence of the minority. However, the Congress Party, on the whole, believed that Partition was inevitable and after the initial objection most of the Congress Party leaders agreed to it.

Question 13.
How did the Partition affect the life of women?
Answer:
Historians have analyzed the feelings of the common people during and after the Partition. Many have written about the terrible experiences of many women. The worst victims of the Partition were women. Many of them were raped. Many were kidnapped and sold. They were forced to live a new life with strangers in a strange land. Somehow many of them suffered indescribable difficulties. But some adjusted with the new situation.

The governments of India and Pakistan did not bother to realise the complexities of human relations. Both governments decided to exchange women belonging to their respective countries – the Pakistani women in India had to go to Pakistan and Indian women in Pakistan had to come to India.

Following this, a countrywide search was made to locate the women abducted from both sides. Those who were found were sent back to their countries. Nobody bothered to seek the opinion of the women involved in this exchange. Thus women were denied to take decisions about their own lives.

According to statistics, a total of 30,000 women were rescued this way – 22,000 women from India and 8000 women from Pakistan. This rescue operation lasted until 1954.

Question 14.
Show the relevance of the concept of ‘Preserving the honour and dignity of the society’ during Partition with appropriate examples.
Answer:
Many have written about the terrible experiences of many.women. The worst victims of the Partition were women. Many of them were raped. Many were kidnapped and sold. They were forced to live a new life with strangers in a strange land. Somehow many of them suffered indescribably difficulties. But some adjusted with the new situation.

In the dangerous times of Partition the concept of ‘Preserving the honour and dignity of the society’ came into existence. Historians say the following:

• Honour and Dignity are often related to the idea of male domination. This concept has its origin from the feeling that ‘zamin’ and ‘zanan’ (land and woman) are owned by men. This concept was in existence in the village communities of North India from time immemorial.
• According to this concept, masculinity consists of the ability of a male in protecting his land and woman. There were plenty of quarrels about land and women among men. Women also subscribed to this view.
• Very often men killed their women-wives, daughters, sisters, etc. – if they felt that these women would be taken away by enemies. This is some kind of honour killing.

Question 15.
Even amidst the devilish acts of cruelty during Partition, there were still some people with virtues of sympathy, humanity and friendship. Explain with examples.
Answer:
Historians have unearthed many instances when people helped one another during the Partition, even when they belonged to different religions. A good example is that of Dr. Khush Dev Singh. He was a Sikh. He worked at Dharampur (Himachal Pradesh) as a specialist of TB (tuberculosis). He continued working day and night, giving food and medicine, helping people of different communities. The faith of the Muslims in Dr. Khush Dev Singh of Dharampur was like the faith the Muslims of Delhi had in Gandhi. One of the riot victims, Mohammed Omar, wrote to Khush Dev Singh a letter. He said that only in his protection he would feel secure and so he should be given a place in his hospital.

We learn more about the relief work done by Khush Dev Singh from his memoirs. In his book called “Love is Stronger than Hatred – 1947 – a Reminiscence” Khush Dev wrote, “What I did were my simple endeavours to do my duty as a human being to my fellow human beings.”

He visited Karachi twice in 1949. He has described his experiences in his book. His old friends and those who were helped by him spent some hours with him at the Karachi airport. There were also six police constables. They accompanied him to the aeroplane and saluted him. Khush Dev Singh says that his eyes were filled at the love shown by them.

Question 16.
What is the importance of oral historical tradition in the case of the Partition? What are its advantages and disadvantages?
Answer:
Partition was not a merely a political event. It has many levels of meaning. We can know a lot of things from those who experienced Partition and who survived it. It is memories and experiences that bring out the essence of an incident. Therefore the oral. tradition has a lot of importance in recreating the Partition and its repercussions.

• Personal reminiscences are very important. They help us to understand the experiences of the people in a better way. They show what exactly happened during the Partition and thereafter.
• Government documents give mainly information about the schemes and policies they carry out. We have different reports, files and letters from higher officials of those times.
• They throw light into the meetings between the British government and the different political parties. But these documents will not tell us how the decision to partition the country affected the people in general.
• The experiences of the poor and powerless people, help to increase the boundaries of historical research.
• Oral tradition is not the history of the rich and the famous. It is the experience of the marginalised which is usually ignored by mainstream history.

In spite of all these advantages, many historians do not approve an oral history tradition. They point out the following reasons:

1. The information got from oral tradition does not have precision.
2. The time mentioned by it is often not correct.
3. In oral tradition, generalization is impossible. Individual experiences are special and unique.
4. It is related to only external happenings.
5. It is limited to small incidents. Such incidents cannot explain the complex nature of History.
6. The basis of oral tradition is memory. Because of this necessary details may not be available. Often what is said is unbelievable.

Even if many people speak against oral tradition it has its own importance. When we study about things like the Holocaust in Germany, oral history is important in knowing about the miseries of people. Historians can compare written records with oral history to arrive at the truth. It is wrong to say that oral history is simply connected with external matters. The experiences of the people during Partition talk about the central story, and not external things.
To know about different things, different sources are needed.

We may know the number of abducted and rescued women from the government records of India and Pakistan. But only from their experiences will we know the mental and physical pain ad misery they suffered during their abduction and also rescue.

You can Download Kings, Farmers and Towns and its Representations Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 2 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Puls Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 2 Kings, Farmers and Towns(Early States and Economies)

Question 1.
Who read the Brahmi Script?
Answer:
James Pnnsep

Question 2.
Who was the first ruler of Magadha?
Answer:
Bimbisara

Question 3.
Which was the second capital of Magadha?
Answer:
Pataliputra.

Question 4.
Who is the author of ‘Indika’?
Answer:
Megasthenes

Question 5.
Who were the rulers that took the name ‘Devaputhran’?
Answer:
Kusharts

Question 6.
Who is the writer of ‘Prayag-Prasashti’?
Answer:
Harisenan

Question 7.
To which group did the Vellalars belong?
Answer:
Big agricultural landlords

Question 8.
Who was the first person to bring out coins with the name and picture of the ruler?
Answer:
Indo-Greeks

Question 9.
Who were the rulers that brought out the first gold coins?
Answer:
Kushans

Question 10.
Who read the Kharoshti Script?
Answer:
James Prinsep

Question 11.
Match the items in A with those of B.

Answer:

Question 12.
Find out the relations of the items given under a) and b) with each number and complete the blank space accordingly.

Answer:
i) Kautilya (Chanakya)
ii) Chandragupta Maurya
iii) Head of the Village
iv) Ocean Shore

Question 13.
Who was James Prinsep? What were the two ancient scripts found by him?
Answer:
James Prinsep was an official of the East India Company. He is the one who read the Brahmi Script for the first time. Most of the inscriptions were about a king called Priyadarshi, which means joyful to look at. It was Prisep who found this out. He also found the Kharoshti script.

Question 14.
What is the meaning of Mahajanapada? Which were the most important of them?
Answer:
In the 6^th century BC, many independent countries came up in North India. Amongst these there were 16 big countries that were called Mahajanapada. The most important of them were Vajji, Magagham, Kosalam, Kuru, Panchaiam, Gandharam and Avanthi. The Buddhist and Jain Books often speak about these countries. The Buddhist book ‘Anguttara nikaya’ and the Jain religious books Bhagvat Sutra’ and ‘Vakhya Prajapati’ mention the following 16 Mahajanapadas.

1.  Anga
2.  Magadha
3.  Vajji
4.  Kashi
5.  Malia
6. Koshala
7.  Ashmaka
8. Avanti
9. Vatsa
10.  Chedi
11. Panchalam
12. Shurasena
13. Matsya
14. Kuru
15.  Gandhara
16.  Kamboja

Question 15.
Which was the first capital of Magadha? What are its special features?
Answer:
The first capital of Magadha was Rajgraha. Rajgraha means the house of the king. It was situated among five hills. Fortresses were built around Rajgraha to protect it from enemies In the 4^th century BC, the capital was moved to Pataliputra, known as Patna today.

Question 16.
Discuss the responsibilities of the Second Sub-committee in the Mauryan Empire.
Answer:
The 2^nd Subcommittee had extensive responsibilities. It had to prepare bullock carts for the transportation of goods, send food to soldiers and the animals and appoint servants and unskilled labourers to help the soldiers in their various activities.

Question 17.
The national leaders of the 20^th century looked at King Asoka as a model and inspiration? Why?
Answer:
They found that the messages contained in the edicts of Asoka quite different from those issued by other rulers. They showed that, compared to other rulers of the time, Asoka was efficient, hardworking, and humble. No wonder the national leaders of the 20^th century looked at him for inspiration.

Question 18.
Point out three things that lessen the importance of the Mauryan Empire.
Answer:
Some writers do not consider the Mauryan period as an important era in Indian history. The Mauryan Empire lasted for only a few decades. It was in power for only about 150 years. In the extensive history of the subcontinent, that period is not at all big. Moreover, it did not spread to the entire subcontinent. Even in the Empire itself, the control was of different kinds. Because of this loose administration, by the 2^nd century BC, there were many small kingdoms and chiefdoms.

Question 19.
Explain the strategies the Kushans used to acquire higher social status.
Answer:
The Kings and Chiefs found a short cut to acquire higher social status. They simply claimed themselves to be representatives of certain deities. Kushanstried this trick very efficiently. They were in power from 131 century BC to 1^st century AD. They were part of  Central Asian Tribe. They ruled an extensive region from Central Asia to the North-Western India. Kanishka was the most famous king in the Kushana Dynasty. Their history was recreated from the information in the inscriptions and some traditional books.

The concepts of the Kushans regarding kingship are inscribed on their coins and sculptures. Huge stat¬ues of Kushana Kings were discovered in the Mat temple near Mathura and also in Afghanistan. Some historians think that these huge statues point out that the Kushan Kings considered themselves equal to god.

Most of the Kushan Kings took the title ‘Devaputra’. They must have got their inspiration to do that from the Chinese Kings who thought themselves to be the sons of God.

Question 20.
Name the three sources that helped in recreating the history of the Gupta Dynasty.
Answer:
Coins, stone edicts and Prasashtis (literature). From all these, the history of the Gupta Kings could be re-created.

Question 21.
Describe the physical achievements of the Gupta Empire.
Answer:
The Gupta Empire made some physical gains and this increased their authority. Firstly, the centre of their activities was Central India which included Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. This was a very fertile region. Secondly, they were able to use the iron ore found in the Madhya Pradesh and Bihar.

Thirdly, since their region was close to the Silk Route, they got many benefits. All these helped the Gupta Dynasty to establish their reign over Magadha, Ayodhya (Saketham), Prayag (Allahabad), and the Plains of Central Ganges. Gradually their kingdom became an all-India Empire.

Question 22.
The relations between the kings and the village people were often bad. Comment.
Answer:
The relations between the Kings and their subjects, especially the villagers, were often not very good. The Kings taxed their subjects heavily with the only intention of filling their treasury. The farmers were the worst affected by this high taxation. To escape from this, they used one of the two techniques: a) flee into the forest, b) increase the production to pay the increased taxes.

Question 23.
Who was Prabhavati Gupta? What is her relevance in history?
Answer:
The greatest king in the Gupta Empire was Chandragupta. Prabhavati was the second daughter of this king. The rulers of Deccan were the Vakatakas. She was married into this Vakataka dynasty. According to the Sanskrit Law Books, women had no right for land or other properties. But since Prabhavati was the queen she was able to make ‘bhoodan’ (land gift). Otherwise, it would mean that the laws of the Dharmasastra were not applied equally everywhere.

Question 24.
In 6^th century BC, cities were coming up mainly along trade routes. Explain with examples.
Answer:
In the 6^th century BC, many cities came up in different parts of the subcontinent. Most of these towns were capitals of the Mahajanapadas. Many of them were situated close to the trade routes. Pataliputra was located on the banks of the river used for navigation. Ujjaini was near a trade route. Puhar was close to the sea. Many cities like Mathura were active centres in the commercial, cultural and political fields.

Question 25.
What does NBPW mean?
Answer:
Kings, nobles, administrators and the rich lived in the citadel, which was protected by fortresses. At these abodes of the elite, a lot of remains of various kinds of artefacts have been found. The most important of them are the NBPW, short form for Northern Black Polished Ware. They are highly polished black clay pots and saucers. They are notable for their expertise in their making. They must have been used by the rich. Different ornaments made of gold, silver, copper, bronze, glass and clay were found here. There were also plenty of tools, weapons, pots and pans, statues and decorative pieces.

Question 26.
What are Guilds? What were their responsibilities?
Answer:
Guilds or Shrines were organizations of trades and artisans. It is the Guilds that collected the raw materials and supplied manufactured goods to the markets. They worked like the modern banks, protecting the interests of their members. They also settled quarrels among members, issued their own coins and gave grants to educational institutions. Some Guilds became so strong that even the kings could not ignore them. To make enough different things for the use of the rich people who lived in the citadels, the artisans used iron tools.

Question 27.
What were the two methods used to increase agricultural production after the 6^th century BC?
Answer:
Villagers used many strategies or techniques to increase their agricultural production. They included use of ploughs, transplanting seedlings, weeding and irrigation. From 6^th century BC itself, farmers used ploughs in their fields. In the banks of the Ganges and Kavery, cultivation after ploughing the fields became very popular.

In the fertile silt here and the places where there was plenty of rain, they used iron ploughshares to loosen the earth. Those who lived in the central areas of the subcontinent and on hillsides, they used spades to loosen the earth. It was the best suitable thing for such places. Transplanting of seedlings to increase production was begun in the Gangetic plains.

As a result, the production of paddy increased greatly. But this system was not practised extensively, it was suitable only for places where water was plenty. Transplanting seedlings is not easy work. It needs hard work on the part of the peasants. First, the seeds are germinated and then they are transplanted in the fields where there is standing water.

This system helps the seedlings to survive better and it ensures a good harvest. Another technique was irrigation. People made use of ponds, wells and water reservoirs for this purpose. Irrigation work was carried out by individuals and the community working together. Even kings and nobles took part in such community activities.

Question 28.
The 6^th century BC was a turning point in the history of India. Describe the most important events that took place at this period.
Answer:
The 6th century BC was considered a turning in the ancient Indian history. These things took place at that period.

1. The rise of early nations. Countries known as Mahajanapadas were formed at this time.
2. The rise of cities and towns. This is the second urbanization process that took place in India.
3.  Increased use of iron. As more and more iron was used, forests were cleared it led to the expansion of agriculture. The arms made of iron increased the importance of warriors.
4. The development of coin system. The use of coins made of metals helped in the development of trade and commerce.
5. The growth of religions like Buddhism and Jainism.

Question 29.
Who was Grihapati?
Answer:
He is the owner and master of a household. He controls all the women, children, slaves and servants in the household He is also the owner of the land, animals and other household goods. This name was also used as a title for the rich traders in the city and also the elite in the society.

Question 30.
What are the sources of the history of Mauryas?
Answer:
Historians have used different sources to recreate. the history of the Maurya Empire. Archaeological evidences literary books, things like statues etc. were included.

1. An important source of the Maurya period in the contemporary writings of people like Megasthenes. His book called ‘Indika’gives valuable information regarding the Maurya society and the administration.
2. Another important source is the ‘Arthasastra’ by Kautilya. It is a contemporary book giving detailed information regarding the rule by the Mauryas.
3. The Buddhist, Jain and the Puranas literature throw light on the Maurya Empire.
4. The book ‘Mudrarakshasam’ by Visakhadatta describes how Chandragupta Maurya defeated the Nandas.
5. Statues, coins, inscriptions etc. also give valuable information about the Maurya. Empire. The inscriptions on the stones and pillars during the time of Asoka are very valuable.
6. Asoka was the first ruler who got his messages to me subjects and officials inscribed on stones and pillars. He used these inscriptions to spread his religious policies.
7. These inscriptions give great details about the life and policies of this great King.

Question 31.
Explain the main features of the Mahajanapadas.
Answer:
In most Janapadas, it was monarchy, in some Mahajanapadas, there was rule by a group of people representatives. Such groups with ruling powers were sanghas’ or ‘ganas’. In the gana-ruled places, the administration was done by a person chosen by the people’s representatives (E.g. Suddhodanan, the father of Buddha) or by a group (e.g. the ruling groups known as Lichhavis). They were called by the common name kings. Mahavira and Buddha belonged to such gana-nations.

In some countries, the entire land was owned by the king (combined ownership). Some of these countries existed for more than a thousand years. Each Mahajanapada had a capital of its own. The capital was made safe by building fortresses around it. Mahajanapadas maintained armies and also a number of officials.

Question 32.
Magadha was foremost among the Mahajanapadas. Give reasons for the rise of Magadha.
Answer:
The history of India from the 6^th century BC is also the history of various Mahajanapadas fighting for supremacy among themselves. In these fights, the final victory was obtained by Magadha. It became the first among the 16 Mahajanapadas. Magadha included the present districts of Patna and Gaya in Bihar.

There are many reasons that made Magadha overcome its enemies and become number one. They are the following:

1. Magadha was a fertile region. The fertile silt helped agriculture and increased production. They were able to produce surpluses.
2.  There were iron ore mines close to the capital and Magadha controlled them. They could make high-class weapons using iron from these mines.
3. An essential part of the Magadhan army was elephants. They were plenty in the forests of Magadha. Magadha used elephants on a large scale in battles. Elephants were used in breaking the fortresses of the enemies and get across marshlands.
4. The Ganges and its tributaries helped the Magadhans to travel quickly and cheaply and this helped them a lot.
5. Rajagraha, the first capital of Magadha, and Pataiiputra, the second capital, were situated in strategic places. They offered Magadha protection from outside attacks.

Question 33.
Point out the arrangements for administering Pataiiputra by the Mauryans.
Answer:
Each city and town has its history. For example, the history of Pataiiputra begins from the village called Pataligramam. In the 5^th century BC, the Magadhan rulers decided to move their capital from Rajagraha to Pataligramam. They changed the name to Pataiiputra. This city which became the capital of Maurya Empire grew into one of the biggest cities in Asia. But gradually the. importance of this city decreased. When in the 7^th century the Chinese traveller Hyuansang visited this place, it had become an unimportant place with just a few inhabitants.

Question 34.
Assess the historical importance of the stone edicts of Asoka.
Answer:
Most of the stone edicts of Asoka were written in the ‘Prakrit’ language. But in the north-western regions of the subcontinent, Aramaic and Greek were also used. The edicts in the ‘Prakrit’ language are in Brahmi Script. But in the north-western regions, the script is ‘Kharoshti’. In the stone edicts of Afghanistan, Aramaic and Greek scripts were used.

Question 35.
How is the Kharoshti script read?
Answer:
The inscriptions in the north-western regions of India – are in Kharoshti script. This region was ruled, in the 2^nd century BC, by Indo-Greek kings. On the coins of that time, the names of the kings were inscribed in Greek and Kharoshti script. It helped in reading the Kharoshti script.

1.  European scholars who knew Greek-Kharoshti scripts could compare the letters in the inscriptions, and they could easily read them. For example, the sign “A” was used to write names like Appolodotus in both the scripts.
2.  James Prinsep recognized that the language in the inscriptions was Prakrit. This made it possible to read the longer inscriptions.

Question 36.
What are the special features of the inscriptions?
Answer:
Inscriptions are the writings on the surfaces of stones, metals and pots. They were probably official documents issued by kings or rulers. Even private individuals used Inscriptions for different purposes.

1.  Inscriptions are found in different languages on pillars, walls of houses, copper plates and stones.
2.  They record the achievements, activities and ideas of those who get the inscriptions written. The victories of kings, the gifts people gave to religious institutions etc. can be seen in these inscriptions.
3.  Inscriptions are permanent records. In some, there are dates. In others, the date or the period is found through archaeological dating methods or through the style of writing.
4.  The early inscriptions were in Prakrit, the language used by the common people. Inscriptions were also written in Pali, Tamil and Sanskrit. Scholars have tried to read and understand the meaning of the inscriptions.

Question 37.
Point out the features of the trade beyond the subcontinent by land routes, in the 6^th century BG.
Answer:
There was considerable growth in trade and commerce in the 6th century BC. Trade and commerce relations along land, river and sea routes improved greatly. More countries were included in the trade.

1. Trade through land routes extended into Central Asia and beyond.
2.  Trade through sea-routes went beyond the Arabian Sea into Africa and West Asia, Trade through Bengal spread into South East Asia and China.
3. Kings tried to control these trade routes. It was their responsibility to protect the routes from thieves, robbers and pirates. For this protection, the Kings took special taxes from the traders.

Along these routes, there were itinerant traders, merchants and seafarers. The itinerant traders moved on foot. Merchants used bullock carts and beasts of burden, selling goods along the way they travelled. Trade by sea was risky but it was highly profitable. Those who succeeded in sea trade became very rich. They were called ‘masattuvas’ in Tamil and ‘sethis’ and ‘sathavahas’ in Prakrit.

1. Trade was done in salt, clothes, grain, metallic ores, timber, herbs and precious stones.
2. Pepper, other spices, clothes and herbs were in great demand in the Roman Empire. All these goods were taken through the Arabian to the Mediterranean Sea.

Question 38.
The evidences in the inscriptions have some limitations. Comment.
Answer:
The inscriptions have a lot of importance in the history of India. But they have some limitations.

1. They have some technical limitations. Some of the letters are very dim or in a faded state. It is not easy to read them.
2. Some letters are completely erased or damaged somehow.
3. The real meaning of some inscriptions is difficult to arrive at in context.
4.  Thousands of inscriptions have been found. They could not be read, translated or published.
5.  There were many inscriptions that could not survive. Many might have been destroyed. Only a few among the written ones are available now.
6.  Things we consider as important, like political and economic matters, are not recorded in the inscriptions. For example, we do not find anything about the agricultural practices or the joys and sorrows of daily life.
7. They give preference to only serious and strange things.
8.  In the inscriptions what we see is the interest of those who caused the inscriptions. So to know the reality, we must look at them with a critical mind.

Question 39.
Explain with examples how far numismatics (study about coins) can be helpful in the recreation of the Indian history.
Answer:
With the coming of coins, transactions became easier. The role played by the study of coins in recreating Indian archaeological history was great. On the early coins, there were no writings. There were only some signs on them. Such coins are called punch-marked coins. From many sites in the subcontinent, they have been found. Numismatists made use of these coins to learn more about the trade connections that existed among the nation in the ancient world.

The extensive use of gold coins indicates the high value of trade and transactions. It shows that trade was not limited to the bounds of a country. Although South India was not a part of the Roman Empire, there were close trade relations with them.

1. Tribal republics also issued coins. The thousands of copper coins issued by the Yadavas Of Punjab and Haryana in the 151 century AD prove this. It also shows the interest and participation shown by them in matters of trade and commerce.
2. The most beautiful gold coins were issued by the Guptas. Their gold coins were famous for their purity. These coins helped in making trade with distant countries easy.

Question 40.
What were the steps taken by the Mauryas in the administration of the Empire? Explain the important features of Maurya rule.
Answer:

1. Political centres of the Empire
2. Rule of the provinces
3. Urban rule
4. Administering the military
5. Revenue system
6. judicial system

Mauryas had an extensive administrative system. The empire was huge and extensive. It contained mountainous regions, deserts, plains, border areas and sea shores. It was not easy to establish a unified system of government in such widely different areas. Therefore there were different kinds of administration in different areas.

In the empire, there were five important political centres. They were the capital Pataliputra and four provincial centres Thoshali, Takshasila, Ujjaini and Suvarnagiri. All these are mentioned in the inscriptions of Asoka. The capital Pataliputra was under the direct control of the King.

In the capital and the provincial centres, the control of the central government was strong. These centres were chosen with care. They all had much economic importance. For example, Takshsila and Ujjaini were situated along the trade routes to distance places. Suvarnagiri was important in exploiting the gold mines in Karnataka.

1. The administration of the Mauryas was highly centralized. The supreme authority of the country and administration was the King. He also handled the military and judicial power.
2. There was an Advisory Committee called the ‘Mantri Parishat’. This helped the King in the administrative matters.
3. For carrying out the administrative work the Mauryas employed a huge number of officials.
4. The Mauryas also had a highly developed spy system. The spies continued informing the king of the various developments in the country.
5. Ruling the Provinces and Regional Administration: The Empire was divided into 4 provinces. Each province was under a governor or a viceroy.
6. Often a prince acted as the viceroy. The provinces were divided into districts. The head of the district was known as ‘Stanika’.

The smallest part in the administrative set up was the village. The village head was called ‘Gramika’.There were special arrangements for the administration of the urban centres. The administration was extensive and planned. A Council with 30 members supervised the administration of the capital, Pataliputra. The Council was divided into 6 Committees of 5 members each. Each Committee had separate responsibilities.

1. The 1^st Committee supervised matters of health and hygiene.
2. The 2^nd Committee was in charge of taking care of the foreigners:
3. The 3^rd Committee recorded births and deaths.
4. The 4^th Committee controlled weights and measures.
5. The 5^th Committee inspected the manufactured goods.
6. The 6^th Committee collected taxes.

Military Arrangement:
The army ensured the safety of the country and the people. The army was organized in an efficient manner. In the Maurya military, there were six divisions – footmen, cavalry, elephants, chariots, navy, and transport. As per the Greek sources, the Mauryan army had more than 60,000 footmen, 30,000 horses and 9000 elephants. But some historians think that these are exaggerated figures. Megasthenes says that to make the work of the army easy, there was a Committee with 6 sub-committees. Each subcommittee had the following responsibilities.

• 1 – supervised the navy.
• 2 – supervised transport and arrangements for.food.
• 3 – was in charge of the footmen.
• 4 – controlled the cavalry.
• 5 – was in charge of the chariots.
• 6 – took care of the elephants.

The 2^nd subcommittee had extensive duties. It had to prepare bullock carts for moving goods, ensure that the soldiers and animals got proper food, and employ servants and helpers to take care of the needs of soldiers.

Judicial Administration:
The Mauryas had their own judicial system. The king was the highest authority in their judicial system. He was also the supreme court. To handle the various civil and criminal cases there were courts across the country. The punishment was according to the crime. For small. offences, there were only fines. But for big offences, there could be the death penalty.

Tax System:
The country needed a lot of money to maintain a large army and a group of officials. Therefore. the government took plenty of taxes from people. Many of the economic activities were controlled by the government. The highest income was from land tax. Mining, licenses, import-export and customs also brought money into the treasury. Mining, selling of alcoholic beverages, and production of arms were the monopoly of the government. All this brought huge revenues.

Land and water transport was essential for the existence and prosperity of the country. Trade and commerce depended on these transports, Journeys from the central capital to the provinces took a long time. Therefore the government did a lot of things to improve the transport and communication system .and to ensure the safety of the travellers.

You can Download Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 12 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 12 Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement (Civil Disobedience and Beyond)

Question 1.
Who was the political guru of Gandhi?
Answer:
Gokhale

Question 2.
In which Satyagraha did Gandhi intervene for the workers?
Answer:
Ahmedabad

Question 3.
The law that empowered the British to arrest and imprison without trial?
Answer:
Rowlett Act

Question 4.
Following which incident did Gandhi withdraw his Non¬Cooperation Movement?
Answer:
Chauri-chaura

Question 5.
In which Meeting did the Congress declare Poprna Swaraj?
Answer:
Lahore

Question 6.
Who is the leader known as Frontier Gandhi?
Answer:
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan

Question 7.
The Last Plan that tried to maintain India’s Unity?
Answer:
June 3 Plan

Question 8.
Historian Chandran Devanesan says that Gandhi was made by South Africa. Evaluate this statement.
Answer:
In 1893, Gandhi went to South Africa as the legal advisor of a Gujarati Business Firm. He spent two decades there. During that time he became the undisputed leader of the Indians there. He led the fight against the racial discrimination policy of theSouth African government.
Historian Devanesan says that Gandhiji was made in South Africa because of the following:

a) It was here that Gandhi formulated his non-violent method of protest was known as satyagraha.
b) It was here that Gandhi tried to encourage religious tolerance.
c) It was here that he demanded to end the discrimination against women and lower classes

Question 9.
During a classroom discussion, a student said that, the speech of Gandhi in the Banaras Hindu University pointed to his ideas and activities. Do you agree with this? Justify.
Answer:
Gandhi began his speech by severely criticizing the upper classes of India. He accused them of neglecting the poor working-class people. He praised the glorious inaugural function of the Banaras Hindu University. He then talked about the disparity between the people fortunate enough to attend the function and the millions of people who had no chance of attending such functions. He told the rich and the specially invited guests to contribute their ornaments for the welfare of the poor people in India.

He then told them that India won’t be really free when there is such a huge disparity between the rich and the poor. He added that by exploiting the work of the peasants or helping in such exploitation, autonomous government or freedom will be meaningless. Only through farmers, India can be free. Advocates, doctors, the rich and landowners won’t bring us freedom. The inauguration of the Banaras Hindu University was a time for celebration.

The University was established by using the money and efforts of Indians. Gandhi, in his speech, was trying to show the absence of farmers and workers, who formed the vast majority of Indians, on such an important occasion. His Banaras speech was to show that the Indian National Movement had become a movement of the upper-class people.

Question 10.
Which were the early Satyagrahas of Gandhiji? How did they help Gandhiji in his entry to Indian politics?
Answer:
Gandhiji’s first Satyagraha was that of Champaran in Bihar. The indigo farmers there were exploited by the European estate owners. The farmers were forced to cultivate indigo in place of other crops. Then they were forced to sell the indigo at the prices determined by the estate owners. In 1917, Gandhi went to Champaran and studied in detail about the pathetic situation of the farmers there. Authorities asked Gandhi to go away from the place but he did not obey. He continued his research. He wanted to ensure that the farmers could cultivate what they wanted and not what others wanted. Ultimately, the government appointed a Commission. The Commission approved most of the demands of the farmers. Gandhi succeeded in his first attempts at Satyagraha.

In 1918, Gandhiji led two protest movements. One was in Ahmedabad and the other was in Kheda. Gandhi interfered in a dispute between the workers and the owners of a cloth mill in Ahmedabad. In 1919, the workers embarked on a strike demanding increased wages. Gandhi took up this issue. He started a fast unto death demanding increased wages to the workers and better working conditions for them. The mill owners were ready to negotiate. The wages of the workers were increased by 35%.

In Kheda Gandhi fought for the farmers. Because of a serious draught, farmers in Kheda had a serious problem as their crops were damaged. Gandhi told the farmers not to give taxes until some reductions in the taxes were made. Finally, the government approved the demand of the farmers and Gandhi ended his satyagraha.

• The Champaran, Kheda and Ahmedabad satyagaha of Gandhi were a preparation for his entry into Indian National Movement. These activities helped him in understanding the problems of the people.
• They helped Gandhi to have close contacts with people. The sympathy he showed to the poor people helped him to get a place in their hearts.

All the early struggles of Gandhiji were local ones. Soon the British themselves gave him a chance to have a bigger platform for his working. Some incidents in 1919 led Gandhi to be in the forefront of the Indian National Movement.

Question 11.
The Non-Cooperation Movement was the first strong fight of Gandhi against the British. Discuss the causes, the processes, the direction and the results of the Non Cooperation Movement.
Answer:
The Non-Cooperation Movement was the first strong moment of Gandhi against the British. It was part of Gandhi’s concept of non-violence. In the beginning he co-operated with the British. He believed in their sense of righteousness. He showed his loyalty to the British in the First. World War by asking the Indians to join the British army. But some developments in 1919 made Gandhi change his attitude. The Rowlett Acts, Jalian Wala Bagh tragedy, the Khilafat Movement etc. were some of them.

The Non-Cooperation Movement had three aims:

• Find a solution to the Punjab problem.
• Solve the Khilafat issue.
• Gain swaraj.

Non-Cooperation Movement was a political process based on non-violence. It had both constructive and destructive procedures. These were the constructive things:

1. Swadeshi propaganda
2. Abolition of untouchability
3. Promotion of Hindu-Muslim unity
4. Prohibition (of alcohol)
5. Nationalization of education
6. Encouraging the use of the spinning wheel (charkha) and khadi

The negative things were rather extreme in nature. The main thing was boycott.

1. Boycott government educational institutions, courts, assemblies, etc.
2. Boycott official functions
3. Boycott foreign clothes and goods
4. Give up government jobs, titles, positions and rewards
5. Refuse to give taxes

The exhortations of Gandhiji had great effect. Students boycotted government institutions. Thousands of workers in cities and towns went on strike. Official records show that in 1921 there were 396 strikes involving 6 lakh workers. 7 lakh working days were lost. In the Non-Cooperation Movement, women and farmers took active part. Many women came out of their purdah to take part in the protests.

The Movement spread even to villages. The forest dwellers in Andhra Pradesh broke the forest laws. Farmers of Awadh and Bihartook part in the struggle by refusing to pay taxes. The farmers of Kumaon (Uttarakhand) refused to carry the goods of the Colonial officers. Often these protests were done against the instructions of regional leaders. Instead of taking orders from higher authorities, they refused to cooperate with the Colonial administration.

The greatest success was in the boycott of foreign clothes. People went from house to house, collecting foreign clothes and burnt them in public. People encouraged the use of local goods (swadeshi). The most dramatic events of the Non-Cooperation Movement were the boycotts during the visit of the Prince of Wales to India. When he landed in India in November 1921, what he met with were hartals and protest marches. People boycotted him wherever he went.
The government tried all means to suppress the Movement. All leaders except Gandhiji were arrested. Thousands were jailed. Police often fired at the protesters. But all these repressive measures only increased the strength of the Movement.

The Chauri-Chaura incident was big jolt to the Movement. Gandhi was forced to stop the Movement. Violence in Chauri-Chaura occurred when police fired at a procession of farmers. The enraged farmers attacked the Chauri-Chaura police station and burnt it. 22 policemen were killed. This shocked Gandhiji. He realized that people were not yet ready to fight using non-violence. On 22 February 1922, he decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement. He said that no provocation would justify the killing of the 22 policemen.

1. The Non-Cooperation Movement was a significant milestone. In the biography of Mahatma Gandhi, Louis Fischer (American) says that the Non-Cooperation Movement was big turning point in the history of India and also the life of Gandhi. It combined denial, sacrifice, and self-control. Fischer says it was some kind of training for autonomy.
2. After the 1857 Revolt, this was the first incident that shook the foundation of the British Raj.
3. During this Movement, thousands of Indians were imprisoned. People gained the strength to withstand persecutions and tortures.
4. In fact, it was India’s first most popular Movement. It was through this, the national struggle gained momentum and became such a huge movement. All kinds of people took part in it. Congress became a popular organization.
5. It created awareness among people against evils like untouchability and alcoholism. It encouraged national education and use of local goods.
6. It paved the way for the formation of the Swarajist Party.

Question 12.
How did the farmers see Gandhi? Why was it possible for Gandhi to become very close to people?
Answer:
By 1922, Gandhi was able to make the Indian Nationalism a highly popular Movement. Until then it was a Movement of intellectuals and professionals. But soon, with the efforts of Gandhi, thousands of farmers, artisans and workers joined the Movement. Many of them started calling Gandhi ‘Mahatma’ showing him their respect. He was not like other leaders who preferred to keep some distance from people. He sympathized with them and became one of them. He lived like them, and dressed like them. He also spoke in their language.

Question 13.
To start his Civil Disobedience Movement, why did Gandhi choose breaching the Salt Law?
Answer:
Gandhi planned a new way of struggle against the British. This was the Civil Disobedience Movement. He said he would start it by breaking the Salt Law. Salt Law was one of the laws that Indians hated most. This law made the making and selling of salt a government monopoly.

Although each household needed salt, the government did not allow anybody to make it even for personal use. People were forced to buy salt at a high price from shops. The government also doubled the salt tax. The anger of the people increased. Gandhi knew that salt tax was more harmful to people than other taxes.

Gandhi’s move to breach the salt law was a strategic one. He knew by this he could make the people fight against the government. Thus salt law became an important landmark in India’s freedom struggle.

Question 14.
Why was the spinning wheel chosen as a national symbol?
Answer:
Gandhi was very critical of machines saying that they made people their slaves and they took away employment opportunities of people. He objected to the extensive use of machines and technology. He saw the spinning wheel as a symbol of humanity. He though that the spinning wheel brought extra income to people and made them self-sufficient and self- reliant.

Question 15.
What were the contents (agenda) of the Round Table Conferences?
Answer:
The Dandi March opened the eyes of the British. They realized the need to give more representation to the Indians in the government. With this aim, the British government called for Round Table Conferences in London. The first Round Table Conference (RTC) was summoned when the Civil Disobedience Movement was going on. It was in 1930. But it was boycotted by all-important political leaders of India. Congress also boycotted it. Thus the first RTC was without any use.
In September 1931, the 2nd RTC was summoned in London, Gandhi said Congress would represent India. But this was objected by 3 groups-Muslim League, the local kings and Ambedkar.

• The Muslim League claimed that it represented the interests of the Muslims.
• The local kings said that in their kingdoms, Congress, had no support.
• B.R. Ambedkar, who was a lawyer and thinker, said that Congress did not represent the lower class people.

In November 1932, the British Government summoned the 3rd RTC. Congress representatives did not attend this Conference. This Conference formulated certain principles regarding the future Indian Constitution. It was on the basis of these that the India Act of 1935 was passed.

a) The India Act of 1935 marked the beginning of the Representative government in India. There were basic changes in the Provinces. It ended dual administration and brought in provincial autonomy.
b) This Act allowed the right to vote in a limited manner. In 1937, there were elections to the Provinces. Congress got big victories. In 8 of the 11 Provinces, Congress was able to form ministries. Even then Congress Ministers were to work under the British Governor’s supervision and control.

Question 16.
Describe the importance of the 1929 Lahore Meeting of the Congress.
Answer:
The Annual Meeting of the Congress was held in Lahore in December 1929. It was a historic meeting. Here are the reasons for its importance.

1. Jawaharlal Nehru was elected as the President of the Congress. It was an indication that the leadership of the Congress was going into young hands.
2. It passed a resolution saying that the ultimate aim of the Congress was ‘Poorna Swaraj’.
3. It decided to celebrate 26 January 1930 all over India as the Day of Independence.
4. It decided to embark on Civil Disobedience Movement under Gandhiji.

Question 17.
Evaluate the background and nature of Quit India Movement.
Answer:
After the failure of Cripps Mission, Gandhiji decided to start his third phase of struggle against British rule. This is known as Quit India Movement. It started in August 1942. The immediate cause of this Movement was the failure of the Cripps Mission. Gandhi demanded that the British should leave India peacefully and in a timely manner. Congress accepted that idea. On 8 August 1942, Congress met at Bombay and passed a resolution asking the British to quit India. The resolution made it clear that to make the British go away, a struggle would be organized under Gandhi. This struggle is known as Quit India Movement. Gandhi asked the people to come into the open with the slogan ‘Do or Die’.

1. It was a popular movement. Thousands of ordinary people came with their support. Youths were ready to quit colleges and go to jail.
2. It showed the willingness of the people to suffer for freedom and to go to any extent to achieve freedom.
3. It made the British realize that their days were numbered. It forced them to negotiate the transfer of power.
4. It brought world’s attention to the Indian struggle for freedom.

Question 18.
How far are autobiographies useful for recreating history? What are their limitations?
Answer:
Autobiographies are a great source for formulating history. They give us a description of the past. When we read and interpret autobiographies, we ought to be careful. Autobiographies talk of past things. They are written from memories. Writers of autobiography would want readers to evaluate their lives in a particular way.

• Autobiography means that a writer is presenting a picture of himself for the readers to evaluate him. Most often writers of autobiographies don’t write those things that will harm their good image. They might also exaggerate the good things.
• Therefore we have to look for things the writers have not said in their autobiography. We should also find the reason for their silence on certain issues. We should know if the silence was deliberate or accidental.
• However, the “The Story of My Experiments with Truth”, the autobiography of Gandhi, overcomes some of these limitations of common autobiographies.

Question 19.
Gandhiji did not take part in the Independence Day Celebrations. Why?
Answer:
Gandhiji did not take part in the Independence Day Celebrations that took place on August 15, 1947. He was then in Calcutta. He did not take part in any celebration or raise the Indian National Flag. Instead, he fasted for 24 hours. His was a life-or-death struggle for independence. But when freedom came, a big price had to be paid. The country was divided into two. The Hindus and Muslims murdered one another. Gandhiji did not want such freedom. B.G. Tendulkar, the biographer of Gandhiji, tells us how he was working during the Partition period. In September and October Gandhi was visiting hospitals and refugee camps comforting the suffering people there. He exhorted the Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims to let bygones be bygones, to forget and forgive, and live in peace and harmony.

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Kerala Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 11 Rebels and the Raj: The Revolt of 1857 and its Representations

Question 1.
Where did the 1857 Revolt start?
Answer:
Meerut

Question 2.
Who was the leader of the Revolt at Kanpur?
Answer:
Nanasahib

Question 3.
Who was the Governor General who said that Awadh was a cherry that would fall into their mouth?
Answer:
Dalhousie

Question 4.
Who is the person behind the Military Aid System?
Answer:
Lord Wellesley

Question 5.
Which principality is known as the nursery of the Bengal army?
Answer:
Awadh

Question 6.
Who drew the picture called “Relief of Lucknow”?
Answer:
Thomas Johns Barker

Question 7.
1857 Revolt had a common style or model. Explain.
Answer:
Historians generally believed that there was no planning or united effort on the part of the rebels. But later studies show that there was some planning and unified effort on the part of the army in the Revolt. They had mutually exchanged news of their activities. Therefore the 1857 Revolt had a style of its own. When the news of Revolt of one city reached another city, there also Revolt took place. The incidents that occurred in different army units were similar in nature. The rebels attacked and looted the homes of the British officials, they vandalized the government organizations, they burned the documents and records and they looted the treasury. These things were similar everywhere.

Attacking government officials was part of the revolt. The rebels also attacked Collectors, judicial personnel and policemen. They also destroyed railways lines and communication channels. These were some of the ways in which the rebels revolted.

Question 8.
How was the Mutiny planned? What were the means of communication used by the rebels?
Answer:
There was communication among the different military groups in the army camps. For example, after refusing to use the new greased cartridges, the cavalry in Awadh (7^th Awadh Irregular Cavalry) informed the 48^th Native Infantry about this. In the letter from Awadh it was mentioned that they were protecting their faith and they were waiting for further instructions from the 48^th Infantry. The Sepoys and their messengers from one centre exchanged their ideas and schemes . with another centre and that way the Revolt was planned. People talked about the Revolt.

The captain of the Awadh military police was Hearsey. He was given protection by the Indian officials working under him. 41 Native Infantry asked the Military Police to either kill Hearsey or hand him over to them. But the Military Police did not do any of these. Finally a group of officials chosen from each regiment was given the right to take a decision in this matter. Charles Ball, one of the early historians of the Revolt, has pointed out that at night there used to be meetings of such military councils. It shows that during the Revolt some decisions were taken collectively. Sepoys were living in barracks. They had similar ways of life. Often they belonged to the same religious faith. Therefore it was possible for them to plan together and take decisions. The Sepoys themselves were the planners of their Revolt.

Question 9.
Who were the leaders of the 1857 Mutiny? What roles did Shah Mai and Moulavi Ahmadullah Shah. play in it?
Answer:
Shah Mai was an important leader of the 1857 revolt. He lived in a village in Baraut Pargana in U.P. He belonged to the Jats. Many of the Jats were rich people. They objected to the land tax system of the British government. High taxes and the way in which it was collected affected the lives of the people. Their lands were often occupied by traders and money lenders. Shah Mai raised his voice against the exploitation of the British and their agents.

Shah Mai organized the fanners and heads of villages. He travelled in the nights and encouraged people to rise in revolt against the British. The revolt slowly became a popular revolt. The peasants fought against all kind of injustices. The followers of Shah.

Mai destroyed government buildings and bridges. They also destroyed the roads to prevent the government military from entering their villages. They saw the roads and bridges as the symbols of British rule. They also sent arms and food to the rebels in Delhi. They also destroyed the communication facilities between the British headquarters and Meerut.

Shah Mai forcefully occupied the bungalow of a British official and converted it into a Hall of Justice. There he settled the quarrels among the villagers and punished the culprits. He also established a kind of secret service chain.

Moulavis played a significant role in the 1857 revolt. One of them was Moulavi Ahamadullah Shah. He was educated at Hyderabad. From an early age, he became a religious preacher. In 1856, he openly came out against the British. He declared jihad against the British and travelled across the villages. He exhorted the people to rebel. He travelled in a palanquin with drummers in front and followers behind. He was therefore popularly known as Danka Shah. Danka means a drum or a tom-tom

Thousands of people began to accompany the Moulavi. Many considered him a prophet. The British were frightened. In 1856 the Moulavi reached Lucknow. The British prevented him from making propaganda in the town. As he refused, he was arrested and sent to a prison in Faisalabad. When he was released, the 22 Native Infantry declared him their leader. He took part in the famous Chinhat battle. In this battle the British army under Henry Lawrence was utterly defeated. The courage and strength of the Moulavi attracted people. Some people believed that he had some magical powers. They believed that he was undefeatable and the British could not kill him. It was this belief that gave the Moulavi his strength.

Question 10.
Rumours and predictions played a big role in the 1857 Revolt. Explain with examples. Why did people believe in the rumours?
Answer:
Rumours and predictions did play a big role in the 1857 Revolt. They worked as a propelling force for the rebels to be more active. The immediate cause of the Revolt was the rumour about the new cartridges for the Enfield rifles. A rumour spread that these cartridges were smeared with cow and pig fat. This news spread among the North Indian sepoys like wildfire. The sepoys of Meerut went to Delhi. They told the Emperor Bahadur Shah about this. The covers of the new cartridges were to be opened by using teeth. The use of cow and pig fat would thus pollute both the Hindus and Muslims. They felt their religions were in danger. Although the British tried to show that this was just a rumour, people refused to believe them.

The origin of this rumour was later found out. Captain Wright, who was the Commander of the Rifle Instruction Depot, had reported an Incident. In the 3^rd week of January 1857, a khalasi from a lower caste asked a Brahmin sepoy to give him some water from his container of water. The sepoy refused to give him his container saying that touch by a lower caste would pollute the water. The angered Khalasi then told him that soon he would have to use cartridges smeared with cow and pig fat and then he would lose his caste. We don’t know the truth of this story. But this rumour spread fast, creating great unrest among the sepoys of both religions. The British failed to explain things in time.

Another rumour quickly followed. It said that the British government was deliberately panning to destroy the Hindu and Muslim faiths. The rumour mongers also said that the bones of both cows and pigs were ground and mixed with the flour sold in the market. People then refused even to touch this flour. There was also a feeling that the British were trying to convert Hindus and Muslims into Christianity. This increased the fear and anxiety of the followers of these religions. Although the British official tried to remove their fear, they did not believe them.
All these rumours played havoc.

The British also took steps to take over the small kingdoms or principalities in the land. They annexed Awadh on the pretext of maladministration. They took Jhansi and Satara using laws of succession and heredity. In all the regions taken by them, the British enforced their own administration, laws, tax systems and means of tax collection. All these things made the people of North India worried. They felt that their religious, social and economic ideas were being destroyed by the British. The activities of the Christian missionaries made their doubts stronger. In such uncertain circumstances, rumours spread like wild fire.

Question 11.
Awadh was a Centre of the 1857 Revolt. Based on this statement, prepare an essay on the Revolt in Awadh.
Answer:
The taking over of Awadh by the British made the local kings, talukdars, peasants and sepoys very unhappy and angry. By taking over Awadh, not only the Nawab but also many talukdars lost their jobs. The talukdars had many estates and fortresses in the villages of Awadh. They had been in control of these lands for generations. They had much power in the villages. They also used to keep small army units with them. Some even had armies numbering up to 12,000 soldiers. Even the small ones had 200 footmen.

The British refused to accept the autonomy and authority of the talukdars. Soon after they took over Awadh, they dispersed the armies of the talukdars and destroyed their fortresses. The land tax system also was not liked by the talukdars. The British enforced the new tax system in 1856. This was called the Summary Settlement of 1856. This was enforced with the concept that the talukdars had no permanent ownership of the land. The British saw them as encroachers who got the ownership of the land using all kinds of cheating and even force.

The British wanted to avoid the talukdars and make settlements with the real owners of the land. They thought this would reduce exploitation of the farmers and increase the government’s income. But in reality none of these happened. The officials soon realized that the tax imposed on the farmers was much more than their capacity to pay. In short the Summary Settlement was a failure. St satisfied neither the farmers nor the talukdars.

As talukdars lost their positions, their social status was lost. The relations between them and the farmers were ruined. Before the take-over by the British there was cordiality between the talukdars and the farmers. Although the talukdars were strict, they often behaved like the guardians of peasants. They helped peasants in their needs. They also gave peasants loans during festivals. Peasants also showed loyalty to talukdars. But the coming of the British spoiled all these. The farmers got no consideration from the British. The British charged them heavy tax and used strict methods to collect it. During crop failure, or times of trouble, or feasts, the British never helped the peasants.

The ousted talukdars wanted to get back their lost estates and power. They became the strongest enemies of the British. In places like Awadh, where the revolt was the worst, the talukdars and the farmers were in the forefront of the revolt. Many of the talukdars were loyal to the Nawab. They joined Begum Hazrat- Mahal, the wife of the Nawab, in her fight against the British. Even in failure, the talukdars did not abandon the Begum.

The taking over of Awadh by the British made the sepoys also unhappy. Many of them were from Awadh itself. They did not like the idea of their birthplace getting into the hands of the British.

Question 12.
Who was the man behind the Military Aid System? What were its conditions?
Answer:
It was Lord Wellesley that introduced the Military Aid System, in 1728. The rulers who agreed to this system had to accept certain conditions.

• The ruler of the principality should maintain a permanent army of the Company in his land.
• The expenses for this army should be borne by the ruler.
• The rulers who join this system must not make any alliance with other countries or go to war without permission from the British
• The Company will be responsible for the safety of the ruler and his kingdom. The principality should, maintain a British Resident in his capital.
• Resident is the official designation for the representative of the Governor General. A Resident is appointed in places where there is no direct British rule.

Question 13.
Explain the role of talukdars in the 1857 Revolt.
Answer:
The British wanted to avoid the talukdars and make settlements with the real owners of the land. They thought this would reduce exploitation of the farmers
and increase the government’s income. But in reality none of these happened. The officials soon realized that the tax imposed on the farmers was much more than their capacity to pay. In short the Summary Settlement was a failure. It satisfied neither the farmers nor the talukdars.

As the talukdars lost their positions, their social status was lost. The relations between them and the farmers were ruined. Before the take-over by the British, there was cordiality between the talukdars and the farmers. Although the talukdars were strict, they often behaved like the guardians of the peasants.

They helped the peasants in their needs. They also gave the peasants loans during festivals. The peasants also showed loyalty to the talukdars. But the coming of the British spoiled all these. The peasants got no consideration from the British. The British charged them heavy tax and used strict methods to collect it. During crop failure, or times of trouble, or feasts, the British never helped the peasants.

The ousted talukdars wanted to get back their lost estates and power. They became the strongest enemies of the British. In places like Awadh, where the revolt was the worst, the talukdars and the farmers were in the forefront of the revolt. Many of the talukdars were loyal to the Nawab. They joined Begum Hazrat Mahal, the wife of the Nawab, in her fight against the British. Even in failure, the talukdars did not abandon the Begum.

The taking over of Awadh by the British made the sepoys also unhappy. Many of them were from Awadh itself. They did not like the idea of their birthplace getting into the hands of the British.

Question 14.
The Sepoys had many problems and complaints. What were they?
Answer:
The Sepoys had many problems and complaints. They had small salaries. The places they had to stay and the food they got were not of good quality. It was also difficult to get leave. The chances of promotion were limited. They did not get any foreign service allowance for working outside India. The journeys across the seas were not liked by many, because some religions prohibited such journeys. They also were unhappy because the British did not allow many of them to wear head covers and also beards.

Question 15.
There was a vision of unity among the people in the 1857 Revolt. Clarify.
Answer:
One of the most important features of the 1857 Revolt was the unity exhibited by the Hindus and Muslims. This unity was the strength of the rebels. It was clear from the declarations they made. They were addressed to all the people irrespective of their religious faith. The edicts issued by the Muslim rulers made sure that they respected the feelings of Hindus. The Revolt was seen as a battle in which both Hindus and Muslims had to win. These declarations reminded people of the unity that existed in pre-British India. Under the Muhgal rule, both the communities had worked together. An edict that came from Bahadur Shah asked the people to stand behind the flags of both Muhammed and Mahavira to fight against the British. During the Revolt, no difference between Hindus and Muslims was seen.

Question 16.
What measures did the British adopt to suppress the 1857 Revolt?
Answer:
It was not easy for the British to put down the Revolt quickly. They took legal, military and diplomatic measures to suppress the Revolt.
The British made many new laws to suppress the Revolt. By the laws made in May and June 1857, the entire North India was brought under military law. The military commanders were given the power to try and punish the rebels. Even ordinary British citizens were given this right. In short, normal laws and judicial procedures were suspended. All the rebels were sentenced to death. With the aid of the new laws the British tried to suppress the Revolt.

The British made use of their military might to suppress the Revolt. More soldiers were brought from England. They tried to recapture the lost regions. ‘ Their main aim was Delhi. They knew the symbolic significance of Delhi. So they wanted to get it back at any cost. They planned a two-pronged attack. Two sets of armies were used. One set began to move from Calcutta to Delhi and the other from Punjab. They started their efforts in June, but they could capture Delhi only at the end of September 1857. Both the rebels and the army fought bitterly. All the rebels from North India came to Delhi to prevent the British from taking over Delhi. Finally Delhi fell into the hands of the British.

.In the Ganges Plain also the progress of the British was slow. British soldiers took the villages one by one. The villagers fought heroically against the British. The British soon realized that they were facing not just a rebellion but a huge revolt. Forsyth who was a British official said that \(\frac{4}{3}\) of the Awadh male adults took part in the fight. The British could recapture the place only after a long fight, in March 1859. The leaders of the revolt were forced to surrender. All the rebel centres – Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, Bareilly, Banaras, Allahabad, and Gwalior-were recaptured by the British.

The landowners and the farmers of most of the modem Uttar Pradesh combined their efforts in fighting the British. This made the British worried. So they played diplomacy here. They promised the landlords that they would return the land taken from them. They ousted the landowners who still rebelled and gave presents to those who withdrew from the revolt. Many landowners died heroically in their fight against the British. Many escaped into Nepal but died their either from hunger or disease. By the end of 1859, the revolt was completely put down. Thus the authority of the British over India was re-established.

Question 17.
There are differing views about the Revolt in the pictures drawn by people. In light of this statement, describe how the Revolt was presented in British pictures.
Answer:
In the British pictures there are differing views. In fact the Revolt was often pictured in such a way as to get public opinion in their favour. They praised the British leaders who saved the British and suppressed the rebels. The picture ‘Relief of Lucknow’ drawn by Thomas Johns Barker was one such picture. When the rebels attacked LucknovV, the Commissioner Henry Lawrence, along with some Christians, took refuge in the Residency, protected by fortresses. Lawrence was killed, But Colonel Ingles saved the Residence from the rebels. In the meantime the British army under James Otram and Henry Havelock suppressed the rebels. Soon Colin Campbell, who was the new commander of the army of British came with an army and released all those who had taken shelter in the Residency. In the British descriptions this is shown as an example of heroic defence by the British and how gallantly they fought against the rebels.

The picture of Barker shows the entry of Campbell. In the middle of the picture we see the British commanders Campbell, Outram, and Havelock. The sighs of hands around point them to the middle of the picture. The heroes are standing in a well-lit maidan. In front there are shadows of the broken down Residency. In front there are wounded and dying people as proof of the sacrifices the British made in defending their Empire. There are also pictures of triumphant horses indicating the reestablishment of the British authority. Such pictures increased the self-confidence of the British. They also gave them the feeling that the revolt had ended and the British had been triumphant.