Prasanna

You can Download Kings, Farmers and Towns and its Representations Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 2 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Puls Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 2 Kings, Farmers and Towns(Early States and Economies)

Question 1.
Who read the Brahmi Script?
Answer:
James Pnnsep

Question 2.
Who was the first ruler of Magadha?
Answer:
Bimbisara

Question 3.
Which was the second capital of Magadha?
Answer:
Pataliputra.

Question 4.
Who is the author of ‘Indika’?
Answer:
Megasthenes

Question 5.
Who were the rulers that took the name ‘Devaputhran’?
Answer:
Kusharts

Question 6.
Who is the writer of ‘Prayag-Prasashti’?
Answer:
Harisenan

Question 7.
To which group did the Vellalars belong?
Answer:
Big agricultural landlords

Question 8.
Who was the first person to bring out coins with the name and picture of the ruler?
Answer:
Indo-Greeks

Question 9.
Who were the rulers that brought out the first gold coins?
Answer:
Kushans

Question 10.
Who read the Kharoshti Script?
Answer:
James Prinsep

Question 11.
Match the items in A with those of B.

Answer:

Question 12.
Find out the relations of the items given under a) and b) with each number and complete the blank space accordingly.

Answer:
i) Kautilya (Chanakya)
ii) Chandragupta Maurya
iii) Head of the Village
iv) Ocean Shore

Question 13.
Who was James Prinsep? What were the two ancient scripts found by him?
Answer:
James Prinsep was an official of the East India Company. He is the one who read the Brahmi Script for the first time. Most of the inscriptions were about a king called Priyadarshi, which means joyful to look at. It was Prisep who found this out. He also found the Kharoshti script.

Question 14.
What is the meaning of Mahajanapada? Which were the most important of them?
Answer:
In the 6^th century BC, many independent countries came up in North India. Amongst these there were 16 big countries that were called Mahajanapada. The most important of them were Vajji, Magagham, Kosalam, Kuru, Panchaiam, Gandharam and Avanthi. The Buddhist and Jain Books often speak about these countries. The Buddhist book ‘Anguttara nikaya’ and the Jain religious books Bhagvat Sutra’ and ‘Vakhya Prajapati’ mention the following 16 Mahajanapadas.

1.  Anga
2.  Magadha
3.  Vajji
4.  Kashi
5.  Malia
6. Koshala
7.  Ashmaka
8. Avanti
9. Vatsa
10.  Chedi
11. Panchalam
12. Shurasena
13. Matsya
14. Kuru
15.  Gandhara
16.  Kamboja

Question 15.
Which was the first capital of Magadha? What are its special features?
Answer:
The first capital of Magadha was Rajgraha. Rajgraha means the house of the king. It was situated among five hills. Fortresses were built around Rajgraha to protect it from enemies In the 4^th century BC, the capital was moved to Pataliputra, known as Patna today.

Question 16.
Discuss the responsibilities of the Second Sub-committee in the Mauryan Empire.
Answer:
The 2^nd Subcommittee had extensive responsibilities. It had to prepare bullock carts for the transportation of goods, send food to soldiers and the animals and appoint servants and unskilled labourers to help the soldiers in their various activities.

Question 17.
The national leaders of the 20^th century looked at King Asoka as a model and inspiration? Why?
Answer:
They found that the messages contained in the edicts of Asoka quite different from those issued by other rulers. They showed that, compared to other rulers of the time, Asoka was efficient, hardworking, and humble. No wonder the national leaders of the 20^th century looked at him for inspiration.

Question 18.
Point out three things that lessen the importance of the Mauryan Empire.
Answer:
Some writers do not consider the Mauryan period as an important era in Indian history. The Mauryan Empire lasted for only a few decades. It was in power for only about 150 years. In the extensive history of the subcontinent, that period is not at all big. Moreover, it did not spread to the entire subcontinent. Even in the Empire itself, the control was of different kinds. Because of this loose administration, by the 2^nd century BC, there were many small kingdoms and chiefdoms.

Question 19.
Explain the strategies the Kushans used to acquire higher social status.
Answer:
The Kings and Chiefs found a short cut to acquire higher social status. They simply claimed themselves to be representatives of certain deities. Kushanstried this trick very efficiently. They were in power from 131 century BC to 1^st century AD. They were part of  Central Asian Tribe. They ruled an extensive region from Central Asia to the North-Western India. Kanishka was the most famous king in the Kushana Dynasty. Their history was recreated from the information in the inscriptions and some traditional books.

The concepts of the Kushans regarding kingship are inscribed on their coins and sculptures. Huge stat¬ues of Kushana Kings were discovered in the Mat temple near Mathura and also in Afghanistan. Some historians think that these huge statues point out that the Kushan Kings considered themselves equal to god.

Most of the Kushan Kings took the title ‘Devaputra’. They must have got their inspiration to do that from the Chinese Kings who thought themselves to be the sons of God.

Question 20.
Name the three sources that helped in recreating the history of the Gupta Dynasty.
Answer:
Coins, stone edicts and Prasashtis (literature). From all these, the history of the Gupta Kings could be re-created.

Question 21.
Describe the physical achievements of the Gupta Empire.
Answer:
The Gupta Empire made some physical gains and this increased their authority. Firstly, the centre of their activities was Central India which included Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. This was a very fertile region. Secondly, they were able to use the iron ore found in the Madhya Pradesh and Bihar.

Thirdly, since their region was close to the Silk Route, they got many benefits. All these helped the Gupta Dynasty to establish their reign over Magadha, Ayodhya (Saketham), Prayag (Allahabad), and the Plains of Central Ganges. Gradually their kingdom became an all-India Empire.

Question 22.
The relations between the kings and the village people were often bad. Comment.
Answer:
The relations between the Kings and their subjects, especially the villagers, were often not very good. The Kings taxed their subjects heavily with the only intention of filling their treasury. The farmers were the worst affected by this high taxation. To escape from this, they used one of the two techniques: a) flee into the forest, b) increase the production to pay the increased taxes.

Question 23.
Who was Prabhavati Gupta? What is her relevance in history?
Answer:
The greatest king in the Gupta Empire was Chandragupta. Prabhavati was the second daughter of this king. The rulers of Deccan were the Vakatakas. She was married into this Vakataka dynasty. According to the Sanskrit Law Books, women had no right for land or other properties. But since Prabhavati was the queen she was able to make ‘bhoodan’ (land gift). Otherwise, it would mean that the laws of the Dharmasastra were not applied equally everywhere.

Question 24.
In 6^th century BC, cities were coming up mainly along trade routes. Explain with examples.
Answer:
In the 6^th century BC, many cities came up in different parts of the subcontinent. Most of these towns were capitals of the Mahajanapadas. Many of them were situated close to the trade routes. Pataliputra was located on the banks of the river used for navigation. Ujjaini was near a trade route. Puhar was close to the sea. Many cities like Mathura were active centres in the commercial, cultural and political fields.

Question 25.
What does NBPW mean?
Answer:
Kings, nobles, administrators and the rich lived in the citadel, which was protected by fortresses. At these abodes of the elite, a lot of remains of various kinds of artefacts have been found. The most important of them are the NBPW, short form for Northern Black Polished Ware. They are highly polished black clay pots and saucers. They are notable for their expertise in their making. They must have been used by the rich. Different ornaments made of gold, silver, copper, bronze, glass and clay were found here. There were also plenty of tools, weapons, pots and pans, statues and decorative pieces.

Question 26.
What are Guilds? What were their responsibilities?
Answer:
Guilds or Shrines were organizations of trades and artisans. It is the Guilds that collected the raw materials and supplied manufactured goods to the markets. They worked like the modern banks, protecting the interests of their members. They also settled quarrels among members, issued their own coins and gave grants to educational institutions. Some Guilds became so strong that even the kings could not ignore them. To make enough different things for the use of the rich people who lived in the citadels, the artisans used iron tools.

Question 27.
What were the two methods used to increase agricultural production after the 6^th century BC?
Answer:
Villagers used many strategies or techniques to increase their agricultural production. They included use of ploughs, transplanting seedlings, weeding and irrigation. From 6^th century BC itself, farmers used ploughs in their fields. In the banks of the Ganges and Kavery, cultivation after ploughing the fields became very popular.

In the fertile silt here and the places where there was plenty of rain, they used iron ploughshares to loosen the earth. Those who lived in the central areas of the subcontinent and on hillsides, they used spades to loosen the earth. It was the best suitable thing for such places. Transplanting of seedlings to increase production was begun in the Gangetic plains.

As a result, the production of paddy increased greatly. But this system was not practised extensively, it was suitable only for places where water was plenty. Transplanting seedlings is not easy work. It needs hard work on the part of the peasants. First, the seeds are germinated and then they are transplanted in the fields where there is standing water.

This system helps the seedlings to survive better and it ensures a good harvest. Another technique was irrigation. People made use of ponds, wells and water reservoirs for this purpose. Irrigation work was carried out by individuals and the community working together. Even kings and nobles took part in such community activities.

Question 28.
The 6^th century BC was a turning point in the history of India. Describe the most important events that took place at this period.
Answer:
The 6th century BC was considered a turning in the ancient Indian history. These things took place at that period.

1. The rise of early nations. Countries known as Mahajanapadas were formed at this time.
2. The rise of cities and towns. This is the second urbanization process that took place in India.
3.  Increased use of iron. As more and more iron was used, forests were cleared it led to the expansion of agriculture. The arms made of iron increased the importance of warriors.
4. The development of coin system. The use of coins made of metals helped in the development of trade and commerce.
5. The growth of religions like Buddhism and Jainism.

Question 29.
Who was Grihapati?
Answer:
He is the owner and master of a household. He controls all the women, children, slaves and servants in the household He is also the owner of the land, animals and other household goods. This name was also used as a title for the rich traders in the city and also the elite in the society.

Question 30.
What are the sources of the history of Mauryas?
Answer:
Historians have used different sources to recreate. the history of the Maurya Empire. Archaeological evidences literary books, things like statues etc. were included.

1. An important source of the Maurya period in the contemporary writings of people like Megasthenes. His book called ‘Indika’gives valuable information regarding the Maurya society and the administration.
2. Another important source is the ‘Arthasastra’ by Kautilya. It is a contemporary book giving detailed information regarding the rule by the Mauryas.
3. The Buddhist, Jain and the Puranas literature throw light on the Maurya Empire.
4. The book ‘Mudrarakshasam’ by Visakhadatta describes how Chandragupta Maurya defeated the Nandas.
5. Statues, coins, inscriptions etc. also give valuable information about the Maurya. Empire. The inscriptions on the stones and pillars during the time of Asoka are very valuable.
6. Asoka was the first ruler who got his messages to me subjects and officials inscribed on stones and pillars. He used these inscriptions to spread his religious policies.
7. These inscriptions give great details about the life and policies of this great King.

Question 31.
Explain the main features of the Mahajanapadas.
Answer:
In most Janapadas, it was monarchy, in some Mahajanapadas, there was rule by a group of people representatives. Such groups with ruling powers were sanghas’ or ‘ganas’. In the gana-ruled places, the administration was done by a person chosen by the people’s representatives (E.g. Suddhodanan, the father of Buddha) or by a group (e.g. the ruling groups known as Lichhavis). They were called by the common name kings. Mahavira and Buddha belonged to such gana-nations.

In some countries, the entire land was owned by the king (combined ownership). Some of these countries existed for more than a thousand years. Each Mahajanapada had a capital of its own. The capital was made safe by building fortresses around it. Mahajanapadas maintained armies and also a number of officials.

Question 32.
Magadha was foremost among the Mahajanapadas. Give reasons for the rise of Magadha.
Answer:
The history of India from the 6^th century BC is also the history of various Mahajanapadas fighting for supremacy among themselves. In these fights, the final victory was obtained by Magadha. It became the first among the 16 Mahajanapadas. Magadha included the present districts of Patna and Gaya in Bihar.

There are many reasons that made Magadha overcome its enemies and become number one. They are the following:

1. Magadha was a fertile region. The fertile silt helped agriculture and increased production. They were able to produce surpluses.
2.  There were iron ore mines close to the capital and Magadha controlled them. They could make high-class weapons using iron from these mines.
3. An essential part of the Magadhan army was elephants. They were plenty in the forests of Magadha. Magadha used elephants on a large scale in battles. Elephants were used in breaking the fortresses of the enemies and get across marshlands.
4. The Ganges and its tributaries helped the Magadhans to travel quickly and cheaply and this helped them a lot.
5. Rajagraha, the first capital of Magadha, and Pataiiputra, the second capital, were situated in strategic places. They offered Magadha protection from outside attacks.

Question 33.
Point out the arrangements for administering Pataiiputra by the Mauryans.
Answer:
Each city and town has its history. For example, the history of Pataiiputra begins from the village called Pataligramam. In the 5^th century BC, the Magadhan rulers decided to move their capital from Rajagraha to Pataligramam. They changed the name to Pataiiputra. This city which became the capital of Maurya Empire grew into one of the biggest cities in Asia. But gradually the. importance of this city decreased. When in the 7^th century the Chinese traveller Hyuansang visited this place, it had become an unimportant place with just a few inhabitants.

Question 34.
Assess the historical importance of the stone edicts of Asoka.
Answer:
Most of the stone edicts of Asoka were written in the ‘Prakrit’ language. But in the north-western regions of the subcontinent, Aramaic and Greek were also used. The edicts in the ‘Prakrit’ language are in Brahmi Script. But in the north-western regions, the script is ‘Kharoshti’. In the stone edicts of Afghanistan, Aramaic and Greek scripts were used.

Question 35.
How is the Kharoshti script read?
Answer:
The inscriptions in the north-western regions of India – are in Kharoshti script. This region was ruled, in the 2^nd century BC, by Indo-Greek kings. On the coins of that time, the names of the kings were inscribed in Greek and Kharoshti script. It helped in reading the Kharoshti script.

1.  European scholars who knew Greek-Kharoshti scripts could compare the letters in the inscriptions, and they could easily read them. For example, the sign “A” was used to write names like Appolodotus in both the scripts.
2.  James Prinsep recognized that the language in the inscriptions was Prakrit. This made it possible to read the longer inscriptions.

Question 36.
What are the special features of the inscriptions?
Answer:
Inscriptions are the writings on the surfaces of stones, metals and pots. They were probably official documents issued by kings or rulers. Even private individuals used Inscriptions for different purposes.

1.  Inscriptions are found in different languages on pillars, walls of houses, copper plates and stones.
2.  They record the achievements, activities and ideas of those who get the inscriptions written. The victories of kings, the gifts people gave to religious institutions etc. can be seen in these inscriptions.
3.  Inscriptions are permanent records. In some, there are dates. In others, the date or the period is found through archaeological dating methods or through the style of writing.
4.  The early inscriptions were in Prakrit, the language used by the common people. Inscriptions were also written in Pali, Tamil and Sanskrit. Scholars have tried to read and understand the meaning of the inscriptions.

Question 37.
Point out the features of the trade beyond the subcontinent by land routes, in the 6^th century BG.
Answer:
There was considerable growth in trade and commerce in the 6th century BC. Trade and commerce relations along land, river and sea routes improved greatly. More countries were included in the trade.

1. Trade through land routes extended into Central Asia and beyond.
2.  Trade through sea-routes went beyond the Arabian Sea into Africa and West Asia, Trade through Bengal spread into South East Asia and China.
3. Kings tried to control these trade routes. It was their responsibility to protect the routes from thieves, robbers and pirates. For this protection, the Kings took special taxes from the traders.

Along these routes, there were itinerant traders, merchants and seafarers. The itinerant traders moved on foot. Merchants used bullock carts and beasts of burden, selling goods along the way they travelled. Trade by sea was risky but it was highly profitable. Those who succeeded in sea trade became very rich. They were called ‘masattuvas’ in Tamil and ‘sethis’ and ‘sathavahas’ in Prakrit.

1. Trade was done in salt, clothes, grain, metallic ores, timber, herbs and precious stones.
2. Pepper, other spices, clothes and herbs were in great demand in the Roman Empire. All these goods were taken through the Arabian to the Mediterranean Sea.

Question 38.
The evidences in the inscriptions have some limitations. Comment.
Answer:
The inscriptions have a lot of importance in the history of India. But they have some limitations.

1. They have some technical limitations. Some of the letters are very dim or in a faded state. It is not easy to read them.
2. Some letters are completely erased or damaged somehow.
3. The real meaning of some inscriptions is difficult to arrive at in context.
4.  Thousands of inscriptions have been found. They could not be read, translated or published.
5.  There were many inscriptions that could not survive. Many might have been destroyed. Only a few among the written ones are available now.
6.  Things we consider as important, like political and economic matters, are not recorded in the inscriptions. For example, we do not find anything about the agricultural practices or the joys and sorrows of daily life.
7. They give preference to only serious and strange things.
8.  In the inscriptions what we see is the interest of those who caused the inscriptions. So to know the reality, we must look at them with a critical mind.

Question 39.
Explain with examples how far numismatics (study about coins) can be helpful in the recreation of the Indian history.
Answer:
With the coming of coins, transactions became easier. The role played by the study of coins in recreating Indian archaeological history was great. On the early coins, there were no writings. There were only some signs on them. Such coins are called punch-marked coins. From many sites in the subcontinent, they have been found. Numismatists made use of these coins to learn more about the trade connections that existed among the nation in the ancient world.

The extensive use of gold coins indicates the high value of trade and transactions. It shows that trade was not limited to the bounds of a country. Although South India was not a part of the Roman Empire, there were close trade relations with them.

1. Tribal republics also issued coins. The thousands of copper coins issued by the Yadavas Of Punjab and Haryana in the 151 century AD prove this. It also shows the interest and participation shown by them in matters of trade and commerce.
2. The most beautiful gold coins were issued by the Guptas. Their gold coins were famous for their purity. These coins helped in making trade with distant countries easy.

Question 40.
What were the steps taken by the Mauryas in the administration of the Empire? Explain the important features of Maurya rule.
Answer:

1. Political centres of the Empire
2. Rule of the provinces
3. Urban rule
4. Administering the military
5. Revenue system
6. judicial system

Mauryas had an extensive administrative system. The empire was huge and extensive. It contained mountainous regions, deserts, plains, border areas and sea shores. It was not easy to establish a unified system of government in such widely different areas. Therefore there were different kinds of administration in different areas.

In the empire, there were five important political centres. They were the capital Pataliputra and four provincial centres Thoshali, Takshasila, Ujjaini and Suvarnagiri. All these are mentioned in the inscriptions of Asoka. The capital Pataliputra was under the direct control of the King.

In the capital and the provincial centres, the control of the central government was strong. These centres were chosen with care. They all had much economic importance. For example, Takshsila and Ujjaini were situated along the trade routes to distance places. Suvarnagiri was important in exploiting the gold mines in Karnataka.

1. The administration of the Mauryas was highly centralized. The supreme authority of the country and administration was the King. He also handled the military and judicial power.
2. There was an Advisory Committee called the ‘Mantri Parishat’. This helped the King in the administrative matters.
3. For carrying out the administrative work the Mauryas employed a huge number of officials.
4. The Mauryas also had a highly developed spy system. The spies continued informing the king of the various developments in the country.
5. Ruling the Provinces and Regional Administration: The Empire was divided into 4 provinces. Each province was under a governor or a viceroy.
6. Often a prince acted as the viceroy. The provinces were divided into districts. The head of the district was known as ‘Stanika’.

The smallest part in the administrative set up was the village. The village head was called ‘Gramika’.There were special arrangements for the administration of the urban centres. The administration was extensive and planned. A Council with 30 members supervised the administration of the capital, Pataliputra. The Council was divided into 6 Committees of 5 members each. Each Committee had separate responsibilities.

1. The 1^st Committee supervised matters of health and hygiene.
2. The 2^nd Committee was in charge of taking care of the foreigners:
3. The 3^rd Committee recorded births and deaths.
4. The 4^th Committee controlled weights and measures.
5. The 5^th Committee inspected the manufactured goods.
6. The 6^th Committee collected taxes.

Military Arrangement:
The army ensured the safety of the country and the people. The army was organized in an efficient manner. In the Maurya military, there were six divisions – footmen, cavalry, elephants, chariots, navy, and transport. As per the Greek sources, the Mauryan army had more than 60,000 footmen, 30,000 horses and 9000 elephants. But some historians think that these are exaggerated figures. Megasthenes says that to make the work of the army easy, there was a Committee with 6 sub-committees. Each subcommittee had the following responsibilities.

• 1 – supervised the navy.
• 2 – supervised transport and arrangements for.food.
• 3 – was in charge of the footmen.
• 4 – controlled the cavalry.
• 5 – was in charge of the chariots.
• 6 – took care of the elephants.

The 2^nd subcommittee had extensive duties. It had to prepare bullock carts for moving goods, ensure that the soldiers and animals got proper food, and employ servants and helpers to take care of the needs of soldiers.

Judicial Administration:
The Mauryas had their own judicial system. The king was the highest authority in their judicial system. He was also the supreme court. To handle the various civil and criminal cases there were courts across the country. The punishment was according to the crime. For small. offences, there were only fines. But for big offences, there could be the death penalty.

Tax System:
The country needed a lot of money to maintain a large army and a group of officials. Therefore. the government took plenty of taxes from people. Many of the economic activities were controlled by the government. The highest income was from land tax. Mining, licenses, import-export and customs also brought money into the treasury. Mining, selling of alcoholic beverages, and production of arms were the monopoly of the government. All this brought huge revenues.

Land and water transport was essential for the existence and prosperity of the country. Trade and commerce depended on these transports, Journeys from the central capital to the provinces took a long time. Therefore the government did a lot of things to improve the transport and communication system .and to ensure the safety of the travellers.

You can Download Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 12 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 12 Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement (Civil Disobedience and Beyond)

Question 1.
Who was the political guru of Gandhi?
Answer:
Gokhale

Question 2.
In which Satyagraha did Gandhi intervene for the workers?
Answer:
Ahmedabad

Question 3.
The law that empowered the British to arrest and imprison without trial?
Answer:
Rowlett Act

Question 4.
Following which incident did Gandhi withdraw his Non¬Cooperation Movement?
Answer:
Chauri-chaura

Question 5.
In which Meeting did the Congress declare Poprna Swaraj?
Answer:
Lahore

Question 6.
Who is the leader known as Frontier Gandhi?
Answer:
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan

Question 7.
The Last Plan that tried to maintain India’s Unity?
Answer:
June 3 Plan

Question 8.
Historian Chandran Devanesan says that Gandhi was made by South Africa. Evaluate this statement.
Answer:
In 1893, Gandhi went to South Africa as the legal advisor of a Gujarati Business Firm. He spent two decades there. During that time he became the undisputed leader of the Indians there. He led the fight against the racial discrimination policy of theSouth African government.
Historian Devanesan says that Gandhiji was made in South Africa because of the following:

a) It was here that Gandhi formulated his non-violent method of protest was known as satyagraha.
b) It was here that Gandhi tried to encourage religious tolerance.
c) It was here that he demanded to end the discrimination against women and lower classes

Question 9.
During a classroom discussion, a student said that, the speech of Gandhi in the Banaras Hindu University pointed to his ideas and activities. Do you agree with this? Justify.
Answer:
Gandhi began his speech by severely criticizing the upper classes of India. He accused them of neglecting the poor working-class people. He praised the glorious inaugural function of the Banaras Hindu University. He then talked about the disparity between the people fortunate enough to attend the function and the millions of people who had no chance of attending such functions. He told the rich and the specially invited guests to contribute their ornaments for the welfare of the poor people in India.

He then told them that India won’t be really free when there is such a huge disparity between the rich and the poor. He added that by exploiting the work of the peasants or helping in such exploitation, autonomous government or freedom will be meaningless. Only through farmers, India can be free. Advocates, doctors, the rich and landowners won’t bring us freedom. The inauguration of the Banaras Hindu University was a time for celebration.

The University was established by using the money and efforts of Indians. Gandhi, in his speech, was trying to show the absence of farmers and workers, who formed the vast majority of Indians, on such an important occasion. His Banaras speech was to show that the Indian National Movement had become a movement of the upper-class people.

Question 10.
Which were the early Satyagrahas of Gandhiji? How did they help Gandhiji in his entry to Indian politics?
Answer:
Gandhiji’s first Satyagraha was that of Champaran in Bihar. The indigo farmers there were exploited by the European estate owners. The farmers were forced to cultivate indigo in place of other crops. Then they were forced to sell the indigo at the prices determined by the estate owners. In 1917, Gandhi went to Champaran and studied in detail about the pathetic situation of the farmers there. Authorities asked Gandhi to go away from the place but he did not obey. He continued his research. He wanted to ensure that the farmers could cultivate what they wanted and not what others wanted. Ultimately, the government appointed a Commission. The Commission approved most of the demands of the farmers. Gandhi succeeded in his first attempts at Satyagraha.

In 1918, Gandhiji led two protest movements. One was in Ahmedabad and the other was in Kheda. Gandhi interfered in a dispute between the workers and the owners of a cloth mill in Ahmedabad. In 1919, the workers embarked on a strike demanding increased wages. Gandhi took up this issue. He started a fast unto death demanding increased wages to the workers and better working conditions for them. The mill owners were ready to negotiate. The wages of the workers were increased by 35%.

In Kheda Gandhi fought for the farmers. Because of a serious draught, farmers in Kheda had a serious problem as their crops were damaged. Gandhi told the farmers not to give taxes until some reductions in the taxes were made. Finally, the government approved the demand of the farmers and Gandhi ended his satyagraha.

• The Champaran, Kheda and Ahmedabad satyagaha of Gandhi were a preparation for his entry into Indian National Movement. These activities helped him in understanding the problems of the people.
• They helped Gandhi to have close contacts with people. The sympathy he showed to the poor people helped him to get a place in their hearts.

All the early struggles of Gandhiji were local ones. Soon the British themselves gave him a chance to have a bigger platform for his working. Some incidents in 1919 led Gandhi to be in the forefront of the Indian National Movement.

Question 11.
The Non-Cooperation Movement was the first strong fight of Gandhi against the British. Discuss the causes, the processes, the direction and the results of the Non Cooperation Movement.
Answer:
The Non-Cooperation Movement was the first strong moment of Gandhi against the British. It was part of Gandhi’s concept of non-violence. In the beginning he co-operated with the British. He believed in their sense of righteousness. He showed his loyalty to the British in the First. World War by asking the Indians to join the British army. But some developments in 1919 made Gandhi change his attitude. The Rowlett Acts, Jalian Wala Bagh tragedy, the Khilafat Movement etc. were some of them.

The Non-Cooperation Movement had three aims:

• Find a solution to the Punjab problem.
• Solve the Khilafat issue.
• Gain swaraj.

Non-Cooperation Movement was a political process based on non-violence. It had both constructive and destructive procedures. These were the constructive things:

1. Swadeshi propaganda
2. Abolition of untouchability
3. Promotion of Hindu-Muslim unity
4. Prohibition (of alcohol)
5. Nationalization of education
6. Encouraging the use of the spinning wheel (charkha) and khadi

The negative things were rather extreme in nature. The main thing was boycott.

1. Boycott government educational institutions, courts, assemblies, etc.
2. Boycott official functions
3. Boycott foreign clothes and goods
4. Give up government jobs, titles, positions and rewards
5. Refuse to give taxes

The exhortations of Gandhiji had great effect. Students boycotted government institutions. Thousands of workers in cities and towns went on strike. Official records show that in 1921 there were 396 strikes involving 6 lakh workers. 7 lakh working days were lost. In the Non-Cooperation Movement, women and farmers took active part. Many women came out of their purdah to take part in the protests.

The Movement spread even to villages. The forest dwellers in Andhra Pradesh broke the forest laws. Farmers of Awadh and Bihartook part in the struggle by refusing to pay taxes. The farmers of Kumaon (Uttarakhand) refused to carry the goods of the Colonial officers. Often these protests were done against the instructions of regional leaders. Instead of taking orders from higher authorities, they refused to cooperate with the Colonial administration.

The greatest success was in the boycott of foreign clothes. People went from house to house, collecting foreign clothes and burnt them in public. People encouraged the use of local goods (swadeshi). The most dramatic events of the Non-Cooperation Movement were the boycotts during the visit of the Prince of Wales to India. When he landed in India in November 1921, what he met with were hartals and protest marches. People boycotted him wherever he went.
The government tried all means to suppress the Movement. All leaders except Gandhiji were arrested. Thousands were jailed. Police often fired at the protesters. But all these repressive measures only increased the strength of the Movement.

The Chauri-Chaura incident was big jolt to the Movement. Gandhi was forced to stop the Movement. Violence in Chauri-Chaura occurred when police fired at a procession of farmers. The enraged farmers attacked the Chauri-Chaura police station and burnt it. 22 policemen were killed. This shocked Gandhiji. He realized that people were not yet ready to fight using non-violence. On 22 February 1922, he decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement. He said that no provocation would justify the killing of the 22 policemen.

1. The Non-Cooperation Movement was a significant milestone. In the biography of Mahatma Gandhi, Louis Fischer (American) says that the Non-Cooperation Movement was big turning point in the history of India and also the life of Gandhi. It combined denial, sacrifice, and self-control. Fischer says it was some kind of training for autonomy.
2. After the 1857 Revolt, this was the first incident that shook the foundation of the British Raj.
3. During this Movement, thousands of Indians were imprisoned. People gained the strength to withstand persecutions and tortures.
4. In fact, it was India’s first most popular Movement. It was through this, the national struggle gained momentum and became such a huge movement. All kinds of people took part in it. Congress became a popular organization.
5. It created awareness among people against evils like untouchability and alcoholism. It encouraged national education and use of local goods.
6. It paved the way for the formation of the Swarajist Party.

Question 12.
How did the farmers see Gandhi? Why was it possible for Gandhi to become very close to people?
Answer:
By 1922, Gandhi was able to make the Indian Nationalism a highly popular Movement. Until then it was a Movement of intellectuals and professionals. But soon, with the efforts of Gandhi, thousands of farmers, artisans and workers joined the Movement. Many of them started calling Gandhi ‘Mahatma’ showing him their respect. He was not like other leaders who preferred to keep some distance from people. He sympathized with them and became one of them. He lived like them, and dressed like them. He also spoke in their language.

Question 13.
To start his Civil Disobedience Movement, why did Gandhi choose breaching the Salt Law?
Answer:
Gandhi planned a new way of struggle against the British. This was the Civil Disobedience Movement. He said he would start it by breaking the Salt Law. Salt Law was one of the laws that Indians hated most. This law made the making and selling of salt a government monopoly.

Although each household needed salt, the government did not allow anybody to make it even for personal use. People were forced to buy salt at a high price from shops. The government also doubled the salt tax. The anger of the people increased. Gandhi knew that salt tax was more harmful to people than other taxes.

Gandhi’s move to breach the salt law was a strategic one. He knew by this he could make the people fight against the government. Thus salt law became an important landmark in India’s freedom struggle.

Question 14.
Why was the spinning wheel chosen as a national symbol?
Answer:
Gandhi was very critical of machines saying that they made people their slaves and they took away employment opportunities of people. He objected to the extensive use of machines and technology. He saw the spinning wheel as a symbol of humanity. He though that the spinning wheel brought extra income to people and made them self-sufficient and self- reliant.

Question 15.
What were the contents (agenda) of the Round Table Conferences?
Answer:
The Dandi March opened the eyes of the British. They realized the need to give more representation to the Indians in the government. With this aim, the British government called for Round Table Conferences in London. The first Round Table Conference (RTC) was summoned when the Civil Disobedience Movement was going on. It was in 1930. But it was boycotted by all-important political leaders of India. Congress also boycotted it. Thus the first RTC was without any use.
In September 1931, the 2nd RTC was summoned in London, Gandhi said Congress would represent India. But this was objected by 3 groups-Muslim League, the local kings and Ambedkar.

• The Muslim League claimed that it represented the interests of the Muslims.
• The local kings said that in their kingdoms, Congress, had no support.
• B.R. Ambedkar, who was a lawyer and thinker, said that Congress did not represent the lower class people.

In November 1932, the British Government summoned the 3rd RTC. Congress representatives did not attend this Conference. This Conference formulated certain principles regarding the future Indian Constitution. It was on the basis of these that the India Act of 1935 was passed.

a) The India Act of 1935 marked the beginning of the Representative government in India. There were basic changes in the Provinces. It ended dual administration and brought in provincial autonomy.
b) This Act allowed the right to vote in a limited manner. In 1937, there were elections to the Provinces. Congress got big victories. In 8 of the 11 Provinces, Congress was able to form ministries. Even then Congress Ministers were to work under the British Governor’s supervision and control.

Question 16.
Describe the importance of the 1929 Lahore Meeting of the Congress.
Answer:
The Annual Meeting of the Congress was held in Lahore in December 1929. It was a historic meeting. Here are the reasons for its importance.

1. Jawaharlal Nehru was elected as the President of the Congress. It was an indication that the leadership of the Congress was going into young hands.
2. It passed a resolution saying that the ultimate aim of the Congress was ‘Poorna Swaraj’.
3. It decided to celebrate 26 January 1930 all over India as the Day of Independence.
4. It decided to embark on Civil Disobedience Movement under Gandhiji.

Question 17.
Evaluate the background and nature of Quit India Movement.
Answer:
After the failure of Cripps Mission, Gandhiji decided to start his third phase of struggle against British rule. This is known as Quit India Movement. It started in August 1942. The immediate cause of this Movement was the failure of the Cripps Mission. Gandhi demanded that the British should leave India peacefully and in a timely manner. Congress accepted that idea. On 8 August 1942, Congress met at Bombay and passed a resolution asking the British to quit India. The resolution made it clear that to make the British go away, a struggle would be organized under Gandhi. This struggle is known as Quit India Movement. Gandhi asked the people to come into the open with the slogan ‘Do or Die’.

1. It was a popular movement. Thousands of ordinary people came with their support. Youths were ready to quit colleges and go to jail.
2. It showed the willingness of the people to suffer for freedom and to go to any extent to achieve freedom.
3. It made the British realize that their days were numbered. It forced them to negotiate the transfer of power.
4. It brought world’s attention to the Indian struggle for freedom.

Question 18.
How far are autobiographies useful for recreating history? What are their limitations?
Answer:
Autobiographies are a great source for formulating history. They give us a description of the past. When we read and interpret autobiographies, we ought to be careful. Autobiographies talk of past things. They are written from memories. Writers of autobiography would want readers to evaluate their lives in a particular way.

• Autobiography means that a writer is presenting a picture of himself for the readers to evaluate him. Most often writers of autobiographies don’t write those things that will harm their good image. They might also exaggerate the good things.
• Therefore we have to look for things the writers have not said in their autobiography. We should also find the reason for their silence on certain issues. We should know if the silence was deliberate or accidental.
• However, the “The Story of My Experiments with Truth”, the autobiography of Gandhi, overcomes some of these limitations of common autobiographies.

Question 19.
Gandhiji did not take part in the Independence Day Celebrations. Why?
Answer:
Gandhiji did not take part in the Independence Day Celebrations that took place on August 15, 1947. He was then in Calcutta. He did not take part in any celebration or raise the Indian National Flag. Instead, he fasted for 24 hours. His was a life-or-death struggle for independence. But when freedom came, a big price had to be paid. The country was divided into two. The Hindus and Muslims murdered one another. Gandhiji did not want such freedom. B.G. Tendulkar, the biographer of Gandhiji, tells us how he was working during the Partition period. In September and October Gandhi was visiting hospitals and refugee camps comforting the suffering people there. He exhorted the Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims to let bygones be bygones, to forget and forgive, and live in peace and harmony.

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Kerala Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 11 Rebels and the Raj: The Revolt of 1857 and its Representations

Question 1.
Where did the 1857 Revolt start?
Answer:
Meerut

Question 2.
Who was the leader of the Revolt at Kanpur?
Answer:
Nanasahib

Question 3.
Who was the Governor General who said that Awadh was a cherry that would fall into their mouth?
Answer:
Dalhousie

Question 4.
Who is the person behind the Military Aid System?
Answer:
Lord Wellesley

Question 5.
Which principality is known as the nursery of the Bengal army?
Answer:
Awadh

Question 6.
Who drew the picture called “Relief of Lucknow”?
Answer:
Thomas Johns Barker

Question 7.
1857 Revolt had a common style or model. Explain.
Answer:
Historians generally believed that there was no planning or united effort on the part of the rebels. But later studies show that there was some planning and unified effort on the part of the army in the Revolt. They had mutually exchanged news of their activities. Therefore the 1857 Revolt had a style of its own. When the news of Revolt of one city reached another city, there also Revolt took place. The incidents that occurred in different army units were similar in nature. The rebels attacked and looted the homes of the British officials, they vandalized the government organizations, they burned the documents and records and they looted the treasury. These things were similar everywhere.

Attacking government officials was part of the revolt. The rebels also attacked Collectors, judicial personnel and policemen. They also destroyed railways lines and communication channels. These were some of the ways in which the rebels revolted.

Question 8.
How was the Mutiny planned? What were the means of communication used by the rebels?
Answer:
There was communication among the different military groups in the army camps. For example, after refusing to use the new greased cartridges, the cavalry in Awadh (7^th Awadh Irregular Cavalry) informed the 48^th Native Infantry about this. In the letter from Awadh it was mentioned that they were protecting their faith and they were waiting for further instructions from the 48^th Infantry. The Sepoys and their messengers from one centre exchanged their ideas and schemes . with another centre and that way the Revolt was planned. People talked about the Revolt.

The captain of the Awadh military police was Hearsey. He was given protection by the Indian officials working under him. 41 Native Infantry asked the Military Police to either kill Hearsey or hand him over to them. But the Military Police did not do any of these. Finally a group of officials chosen from each regiment was given the right to take a decision in this matter. Charles Ball, one of the early historians of the Revolt, has pointed out that at night there used to be meetings of such military councils. It shows that during the Revolt some decisions were taken collectively. Sepoys were living in barracks. They had similar ways of life. Often they belonged to the same religious faith. Therefore it was possible for them to plan together and take decisions. The Sepoys themselves were the planners of their Revolt.

Question 9.
Who were the leaders of the 1857 Mutiny? What roles did Shah Mai and Moulavi Ahmadullah Shah. play in it?
Answer:
Shah Mai was an important leader of the 1857 revolt. He lived in a village in Baraut Pargana in U.P. He belonged to the Jats. Many of the Jats were rich people. They objected to the land tax system of the British government. High taxes and the way in which it was collected affected the lives of the people. Their lands were often occupied by traders and money lenders. Shah Mai raised his voice against the exploitation of the British and their agents.

Shah Mai organized the fanners and heads of villages. He travelled in the nights and encouraged people to rise in revolt against the British. The revolt slowly became a popular revolt. The peasants fought against all kind of injustices. The followers of Shah.

Mai destroyed government buildings and bridges. They also destroyed the roads to prevent the government military from entering their villages. They saw the roads and bridges as the symbols of British rule. They also sent arms and food to the rebels in Delhi. They also destroyed the communication facilities between the British headquarters and Meerut.

Shah Mai forcefully occupied the bungalow of a British official and converted it into a Hall of Justice. There he settled the quarrels among the villagers and punished the culprits. He also established a kind of secret service chain.

Moulavis played a significant role in the 1857 revolt. One of them was Moulavi Ahamadullah Shah. He was educated at Hyderabad. From an early age, he became a religious preacher. In 1856, he openly came out against the British. He declared jihad against the British and travelled across the villages. He exhorted the people to rebel. He travelled in a palanquin with drummers in front and followers behind. He was therefore popularly known as Danka Shah. Danka means a drum or a tom-tom

Thousands of people began to accompany the Moulavi. Many considered him a prophet. The British were frightened. In 1856 the Moulavi reached Lucknow. The British prevented him from making propaganda in the town. As he refused, he was arrested and sent to a prison in Faisalabad. When he was released, the 22 Native Infantry declared him their leader. He took part in the famous Chinhat battle. In this battle the British army under Henry Lawrence was utterly defeated. The courage and strength of the Moulavi attracted people. Some people believed that he had some magical powers. They believed that he was undefeatable and the British could not kill him. It was this belief that gave the Moulavi his strength.

Question 10.
Rumours and predictions played a big role in the 1857 Revolt. Explain with examples. Why did people believe in the rumours?
Answer:
Rumours and predictions did play a big role in the 1857 Revolt. They worked as a propelling force for the rebels to be more active. The immediate cause of the Revolt was the rumour about the new cartridges for the Enfield rifles. A rumour spread that these cartridges were smeared with cow and pig fat. This news spread among the North Indian sepoys like wildfire. The sepoys of Meerut went to Delhi. They told the Emperor Bahadur Shah about this. The covers of the new cartridges were to be opened by using teeth. The use of cow and pig fat would thus pollute both the Hindus and Muslims. They felt their religions were in danger. Although the British tried to show that this was just a rumour, people refused to believe them.

The origin of this rumour was later found out. Captain Wright, who was the Commander of the Rifle Instruction Depot, had reported an Incident. In the 3^rd week of January 1857, a khalasi from a lower caste asked a Brahmin sepoy to give him some water from his container of water. The sepoy refused to give him his container saying that touch by a lower caste would pollute the water. The angered Khalasi then told him that soon he would have to use cartridges smeared with cow and pig fat and then he would lose his caste. We don’t know the truth of this story. But this rumour spread fast, creating great unrest among the sepoys of both religions. The British failed to explain things in time.

Another rumour quickly followed. It said that the British government was deliberately panning to destroy the Hindu and Muslim faiths. The rumour mongers also said that the bones of both cows and pigs were ground and mixed with the flour sold in the market. People then refused even to touch this flour. There was also a feeling that the British were trying to convert Hindus and Muslims into Christianity. This increased the fear and anxiety of the followers of these religions. Although the British official tried to remove their fear, they did not believe them.
All these rumours played havoc.

The British also took steps to take over the small kingdoms or principalities in the land. They annexed Awadh on the pretext of maladministration. They took Jhansi and Satara using laws of succession and heredity. In all the regions taken by them, the British enforced their own administration, laws, tax systems and means of tax collection. All these things made the people of North India worried. They felt that their religious, social and economic ideas were being destroyed by the British. The activities of the Christian missionaries made their doubts stronger. In such uncertain circumstances, rumours spread like wild fire.

Question 11.
Awadh was a Centre of the 1857 Revolt. Based on this statement, prepare an essay on the Revolt in Awadh.
Answer:
The taking over of Awadh by the British made the local kings, talukdars, peasants and sepoys very unhappy and angry. By taking over Awadh, not only the Nawab but also many talukdars lost their jobs. The talukdars had many estates and fortresses in the villages of Awadh. They had been in control of these lands for generations. They had much power in the villages. They also used to keep small army units with them. Some even had armies numbering up to 12,000 soldiers. Even the small ones had 200 footmen.

The British refused to accept the autonomy and authority of the talukdars. Soon after they took over Awadh, they dispersed the armies of the talukdars and destroyed their fortresses. The land tax system also was not liked by the talukdars. The British enforced the new tax system in 1856. This was called the Summary Settlement of 1856. This was enforced with the concept that the talukdars had no permanent ownership of the land. The British saw them as encroachers who got the ownership of the land using all kinds of cheating and even force.

The British wanted to avoid the talukdars and make settlements with the real owners of the land. They thought this would reduce exploitation of the farmers and increase the government’s income. But in reality none of these happened. The officials soon realized that the tax imposed on the farmers was much more than their capacity to pay. In short the Summary Settlement was a failure. St satisfied neither the farmers nor the talukdars.

As talukdars lost their positions, their social status was lost. The relations between them and the farmers were ruined. Before the take-over by the British there was cordiality between the talukdars and the farmers. Although the talukdars were strict, they often behaved like the guardians of peasants. They helped peasants in their needs. They also gave peasants loans during festivals. Peasants also showed loyalty to talukdars. But the coming of the British spoiled all these. The farmers got no consideration from the British. The British charged them heavy tax and used strict methods to collect it. During crop failure, or times of trouble, or feasts, the British never helped the peasants.

The ousted talukdars wanted to get back their lost estates and power. They became the strongest enemies of the British. In places like Awadh, where the revolt was the worst, the talukdars and the farmers were in the forefront of the revolt. Many of the talukdars were loyal to the Nawab. They joined Begum Hazrat- Mahal, the wife of the Nawab, in her fight against the British. Even in failure, the talukdars did not abandon the Begum.

The taking over of Awadh by the British made the sepoys also unhappy. Many of them were from Awadh itself. They did not like the idea of their birthplace getting into the hands of the British.

Question 12.
Who was the man behind the Military Aid System? What were its conditions?
Answer:
It was Lord Wellesley that introduced the Military Aid System, in 1728. The rulers who agreed to this system had to accept certain conditions.

• The ruler of the principality should maintain a permanent army of the Company in his land.
• The expenses for this army should be borne by the ruler.
• The rulers who join this system must not make any alliance with other countries or go to war without permission from the British
• The Company will be responsible for the safety of the ruler and his kingdom. The principality should, maintain a British Resident in his capital.
• Resident is the official designation for the representative of the Governor General. A Resident is appointed in places where there is no direct British rule.

Question 13.
Explain the role of talukdars in the 1857 Revolt.
Answer:
The British wanted to avoid the talukdars and make settlements with the real owners of the land. They thought this would reduce exploitation of the farmers
and increase the government’s income. But in reality none of these happened. The officials soon realized that the tax imposed on the farmers was much more than their capacity to pay. In short the Summary Settlement was a failure. It satisfied neither the farmers nor the talukdars.

As the talukdars lost their positions, their social status was lost. The relations between them and the farmers were ruined. Before the take-over by the British, there was cordiality between the talukdars and the farmers. Although the talukdars were strict, they often behaved like the guardians of the peasants.

They helped the peasants in their needs. They also gave the peasants loans during festivals. The peasants also showed loyalty to the talukdars. But the coming of the British spoiled all these. The peasants got no consideration from the British. The British charged them heavy tax and used strict methods to collect it. During crop failure, or times of trouble, or feasts, the British never helped the peasants.

The ousted talukdars wanted to get back their lost estates and power. They became the strongest enemies of the British. In places like Awadh, where the revolt was the worst, the talukdars and the farmers were in the forefront of the revolt. Many of the talukdars were loyal to the Nawab. They joined Begum Hazrat Mahal, the wife of the Nawab, in her fight against the British. Even in failure, the talukdars did not abandon the Begum.

The taking over of Awadh by the British made the sepoys also unhappy. Many of them were from Awadh itself. They did not like the idea of their birthplace getting into the hands of the British.

Question 14.
The Sepoys had many problems and complaints. What were they?
Answer:
The Sepoys had many problems and complaints. They had small salaries. The places they had to stay and the food they got were not of good quality. It was also difficult to get leave. The chances of promotion were limited. They did not get any foreign service allowance for working outside India. The journeys across the seas were not liked by many, because some religions prohibited such journeys. They also were unhappy because the British did not allow many of them to wear head covers and also beards.

Question 15.
There was a vision of unity among the people in the 1857 Revolt. Clarify.
Answer:
One of the most important features of the 1857 Revolt was the unity exhibited by the Hindus and Muslims. This unity was the strength of the rebels. It was clear from the declarations they made. They were addressed to all the people irrespective of their religious faith. The edicts issued by the Muslim rulers made sure that they respected the feelings of Hindus. The Revolt was seen as a battle in which both Hindus and Muslims had to win. These declarations reminded people of the unity that existed in pre-British India. Under the Muhgal rule, both the communities had worked together. An edict that came from Bahadur Shah asked the people to stand behind the flags of both Muhammed and Mahavira to fight against the British. During the Revolt, no difference between Hindus and Muslims was seen.

Question 16.
What measures did the British adopt to suppress the 1857 Revolt?
Answer:
It was not easy for the British to put down the Revolt quickly. They took legal, military and diplomatic measures to suppress the Revolt.
The British made many new laws to suppress the Revolt. By the laws made in May and June 1857, the entire North India was brought under military law. The military commanders were given the power to try and punish the rebels. Even ordinary British citizens were given this right. In short, normal laws and judicial procedures were suspended. All the rebels were sentenced to death. With the aid of the new laws the British tried to suppress the Revolt.

The British made use of their military might to suppress the Revolt. More soldiers were brought from England. They tried to recapture the lost regions. ‘ Their main aim was Delhi. They knew the symbolic significance of Delhi. So they wanted to get it back at any cost. They planned a two-pronged attack. Two sets of armies were used. One set began to move from Calcutta to Delhi and the other from Punjab. They started their efforts in June, but they could capture Delhi only at the end of September 1857. Both the rebels and the army fought bitterly. All the rebels from North India came to Delhi to prevent the British from taking over Delhi. Finally Delhi fell into the hands of the British.

.In the Ganges Plain also the progress of the British was slow. British soldiers took the villages one by one. The villagers fought heroically against the British. The British soon realized that they were facing not just a rebellion but a huge revolt. Forsyth who was a British official said that \(\frac{4}{3}\) of the Awadh male adults took part in the fight. The British could recapture the place only after a long fight, in March 1859. The leaders of the revolt were forced to surrender. All the rebel centres – Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, Bareilly, Banaras, Allahabad, and Gwalior-were recaptured by the British.

The landowners and the farmers of most of the modem Uttar Pradesh combined their efforts in fighting the British. This made the British worried. So they played diplomacy here. They promised the landlords that they would return the land taken from them. They ousted the landowners who still rebelled and gave presents to those who withdrew from the revolt. Many landowners died heroically in their fight against the British. Many escaped into Nepal but died their either from hunger or disease. By the end of 1859, the revolt was completely put down. Thus the authority of the British over India was re-established.

Question 17.
There are differing views about the Revolt in the pictures drawn by people. In light of this statement, describe how the Revolt was presented in British pictures.
Answer:
In the British pictures there are differing views. In fact the Revolt was often pictured in such a way as to get public opinion in their favour. They praised the British leaders who saved the British and suppressed the rebels. The picture ‘Relief of Lucknow’ drawn by Thomas Johns Barker was one such picture. When the rebels attacked LucknovV, the Commissioner Henry Lawrence, along with some Christians, took refuge in the Residency, protected by fortresses. Lawrence was killed, But Colonel Ingles saved the Residence from the rebels. In the meantime the British army under James Otram and Henry Havelock suppressed the rebels. Soon Colin Campbell, who was the new commander of the army of British came with an army and released all those who had taken shelter in the Residency. In the British descriptions this is shown as an example of heroic defence by the British and how gallantly they fought against the rebels.

The picture of Barker shows the entry of Campbell. In the middle of the picture we see the British commanders Campbell, Outram, and Havelock. The sighs of hands around point them to the middle of the picture. The heroes are standing in a well-lit maidan. In front there are shadows of the broken down Residency. In front there are wounded and dying people as proof of the sacrifices the British made in defending their Empire. There are also pictures of triumphant horses indicating the reestablishment of the British authority. Such pictures increased the self-confidence of the British. They also gave them the feeling that the revolt had ended and the British had been triumphant.

You can Download Bricks, Beads and Bones Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 1 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 1 Bricks, Beads and Bones (The Harappan Civilisation)

Question 1.
Which site in the Harappan civilization was the first to be discovered?
Answer:
Harappa

Question 2.
At which site was the Great Bath found?
Answer:
Mohenjo Daro

Question 3.
Who was the first Director of the Indian Archaeology Department (Archaeological Survey of India) (ASI)?
Answer:
Cunnigham

Question 4.
From which place were the Harappan people getting their copper?
Answer:
Oman

Question 5.
Who is the spokesman for the Aryan Invasion theory?
Answer:
Mortimer Wheeler

Question 6.
Who is the author of the book entitled “The Story of Indian Archaeology”?
Answer:
S.N. Roy

Question 7.
Which was the year in which John Marshall declared the discovery of the Harappan Civilization?
Answer:
1924

Question 8.
Match the items in Colum A with those in Column B.

Answer:

Question 9.
Match the following.

Answer:

Question 10.
Find the relation between a and b in each group and fill in the blank accordingly.

1. A. Magan : Oman
   B. Dilman : ……….
2. A. Fortress : Public buildings
   B. LowerTown : ……..
3. A. Charles Masson : English Official
   B. Cunningham : ……………………

Answer:

1. Bahrein Island
2. Area of living
3. The first Director of ASI

Question 11.
The Harappan civilization is divided into three stages. What are they? What are their special features?
Answer:
The Harappan Civilization existed between 2600 and 1900 BC. In the same region there were pre and post Harappan Civilizations. The pre Harappan Civilization was called Early Harappan. The post Harappan Civilization was called Late Harappan. To show the Harappan Civilization as separate from these, it is often called the Mature Harappan Culture.

Question 12.
The Harappan city was divided into sections. Explain.
Answer:
The City was divided into two sections:

1. The Citadel.

2. TheLowerTown.

The Citadel (Fortress):
This is built On a manmade platform. It is on the western side of the city. This is the highest part of the city. There are two reasons for its height. Firstly, it is built on higher ground. Secondly, the buildings are put up on a platform made of clay bricks. The fortress is protected with walls around it. Therefore it looks different from the Lower Town. In the fortress, there are tall buildings. They are public buildings. They were used for special public activities. The Warehouse and the Great Bath were the main structures in the fortress.

The Warehouse:
The biggest building in Mohenjo Daro is the Warehouse there. The bottom part of the Warehouse is made of bricks. They still remain there. The upper part was built with wood. It got destroyed long ago. The Warehouse was used to store the left- overgrain.

Question 13.
Point out the importance of the Great Bath.
Answer:
The most important structure in the fortress (citadel) of Mohenjo Daro is the Great Bath. It is in a rectangular shape. The pond is in the yard which is surrounded by corridors on all four sides. To get into the pond there are steps on the northern and southern sides. The bottom of the pond is made watertight using bricks and lime paste. This prevents the water from seeping down and making the water level go down.

There are rooms on 3 sides of the pond. There was a big well in one of the rooms. The water for the pond ‘ was brought from this well. There were provisions for filling the pond with water and to make the dirty water flow out into drains. Historians think that the Great Bath had a religious importance. They think that this Great Bath was used for ritual baths. The Great Bath shows the importance the Harappans gave to cleanliness. It also shows their engineering and technical skills.

Question 14.
Write on a note on the weights and measures of Harappa.
Answer:
To ensure proper exchanges of goods, the Harappans had developed correct weights and measures. These played an important role in the commercial activities. They made measuring weights with a kind of firestone. They also used limestone and alabaster or marble for making weights. Generally, they all appeared like cubes. There were no markings on their weights.

The lower units of the weights were considered as doubles – 1,2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc. until 12,800). But the higher units were taken in normal numeric system (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). Very small weights were used to measure ornaments and beads. Some metallic balances were also discovered.

Question 15.
From the remains of vegetables and bones of animals, explain the food habits of the Harappans.
Answer:
The Harappans made their living by practising agriculture arid animal husbandry. They had different crops. They also tamed different animals. From the burnt remains of grain and seeds found in the Harappan sites, archaeologists have been able to conclude the types of food the Harrapans took. Archaeo-Botanists, who are experts in ancient Botany, have carefully studied these remains found at the Harappan sites. From their researches they found:

1. The Harappans took different types of grains and vegetables. They used wheat, barley, different kinds of pulses and peas and sesame (gingelly).

2. They also used rice and millet. At the sites in Gujarat, remains of millet were found. Rice was seen only rarely. They were found in Lothal and Rangpur in Gujarat.

3. The Harrapans ate a lot of fish and meat. The bones of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig were found at the Harappan sites. The studies conducted by anchor-zoologists and zoo-archaeologists show that the Harappans tamed these animals. They had tamed even wild pigs, deer and gharial (large fish-eating crocodile) which are usually wild animals.

4. It is not clear if the Harappans got these by hunting or from other hunting groups. Remains of fish and chicken were also found at the Harappan sites.

Question 16.
What were the agricultural technologies used by the Harappans? Explain with examples.
Answer:
The main occupation of the Harappan people was agriculture. The remains of different grains found in the Harappan sites make that clear. But it is not easy to reconstruct their agricultural technologies. For example, we are not sure if the Harappan people sowed the seeds in ploughed farms. The images found on the seals and clay sculptures show that they were familiar with bulls. From this, the archaeologists think that probably they used bulls to plough the fields.

At the sites in Kolistan (Pakitan) and Banwali (Haryana), clay models of ploughs were found. At Kalibengan in Rajasthan, the researchers v have found evidences of a ploughed field. In this field, there are two different rows of furrows. It shows they cultivated different crops.

Researchers also tried to find out the type of implements the Harappans used for harvesting. We are not sure if they used sickles with wooden handles or some metallic implements for cutting the crops.

Question 17.
How did the Harappan people solve the problem of lack of rain (shortage of water)?
Answer:
Most Harappan sites were located in semi-deserts. Since the land was dry, there was a need for water for agriculture. For irrigation, the people made canals. At the Harappan site of Shortugai in Afghanistan, there are remains of the canals. But in Punjab or Sindh, such remains are not seen. The ancient canals might have disappeared by the accumulation of silt over long periods.

Well, water was also used for irrigation. There were also huge clay jars for storing water for agricultural purposes. (E.g. Dholaveera)

Question 18.
For what all things did Harappans use bulls?
Answer:
Animal husbandry was one of the important means of livelihood to the Harappans. Bones of cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, etc. were found at different Harappan sites. Studies made by archaeo-zoologists and zoo-archaeologists show that the Harappans had domesticated these animals. Wild animals like wild pig (boar), deer and gharial (fish-eating crocodiles) were also tamed by them. The Harappans had a special liking for humped bulls. Bulls were used for ploughing, to pull carts and also carry goods. Donkeys and camels were used for carrying heavy burdens.

Question 19.
Explain the strategies used by archaeological researchers to find out the social differences in the Harappan culture.
Answer:
In the Harappan society, there were economic and social differences among people. The ways they buried their dead, the luxury items they used and the different types of houses they lived in, show these differences.

1. Burials: To find out the social differences among the people, a technique (strategy) that researchers use is studying about their burial rituals. By studying about the pyramids in Egypt the researchers found the social differences among the ancient people there. Most of the pyramids were the tombs of kings. The dead bodies of the kings (pharaohs) were buried with a lot of wealth.

The tombs found at the Harappan sites give some ideas about the burial rituals of the people. Generally, the Harappans buried their dead. But there are differences in digging the’ grave. On the upper edges of some graves, bricks were laid out. The differences in these graves indicate the differences in the social status. The graves with bricks might have been the graves of the rich.

In some graves, there were ornaments and earthenwares. This shows the belief of the Harappan people in life after death. In some places along with the dead bodies rings with shells and beads were also buried. In the digging done at a gravesite in the mid-1380s, at Harappa, near a mans skull, there were 3 shell rings, a jasper (sun-stone), and an ornament made from hundreds of small beads.

Along with some dead bodies, mirrors made of copper were also found. Generally speaking, the Harappans did not believe in burying things with the dead bodies. But in some cases, some expensive things were found in the graves. This shows the social differences that existed among people.

2. Things of Luxury: Another method the researchers use to find out the differences among people is studying the artefacts (things made by people). They divide these things into two types, a) Useful things,b) Things of luxury, in the first category there are things of everyday use. Pounding stone (for grinding grains), clay pots, needles, body-cleaning things etc. come in this category. These were commonly found, in the graves of the lower town where common people lived.

Things of luxury include uncommon things, things made of expensive materials not locally available, things made with the help of complicated technologies and so on. Pots of faience (glazed pots) are examples of this. They are made with local or metallic sand mixed with colour and gum and are made firm in the fire. Since they were difficult to make they were considered expensive.

Only the rich people had luxury things with them. Luxury and expensive things were found in the vast living areas of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa. In the small areas, they were not commonly seen. For example in Mohenjo Daro and Harappa.

They unearthed a lot of high-quality small containers for keeping aromatic spices and perfumes In small places like Kalibangan, such things were not found. Gold was very rare and expensive. All the golden ornaments got from the Harappan sites were found in hoards.

3. Different kinds of Houses: From a study of the different houses, we can know about the social differences among the Harappan people. The houses ranged from single-room to multi-storied houses. They clearly indicate the social differences among people. The palatial houses belonged to the rich. The poor lived in single-room houses.

Question 20.
The Harappan people were much interested in making beads.” Comment.
Answer:
Making beads was one of the things that the Harappans liked most. To make beads they used different kinds of materials. They used different kinds of stones like carnelian, jasper, sapphire, crystal, alabaster or limestone. They also used metals like copper, bronze and gold. They also made use of shells, faience and clay to make beads.

Some bead garlands were made from two different types of beads. The beads were attached together. Some beads were even covered with gold. These ornaments were of different shapes Some were round, some looked like pillars, some were oval in shape, some looked like barrels and some had a crescent shape. Some garlands were decorated with Inscriptions and pictures. Their designs were very beautiful.

The skill needed to make beads differed with the material used in them. Beads with limestone, which were not very strong or hard, were easy to make. Limestone was ground and was made into a paste and from this beads were moulded.

This was helpful in giving beads different shapes. Even now the researchers are struggling to find out how the ancient people could make such fine beads from limestone. Beads made from stronger stones had different geometrical shapes.

Beads were made from carnelian. At different stages of manufacturing, the yellow raw material and the beads were heated to give them red colour. The projections on the surface are removed and the beads are filed smooth and holes are drilled in them. They used special kinds of drills to make holes in the beads.

Nageshwar and Balakot were settlements near the sea. They were centres for making things with shells. With shells, they made bangles, spoons and different decorative pieces. From these places, the things they made were distributed to other places. In the same ways, bead products made in Chanhudaro and Lothal were sent to bigger city centres like Mohenjo Daro and Harappa.

Question 21.
What all things are considered by the archaeological researchers to find out the centres for the production of various artefacts?
Answer:

1. They try to find the places from where raw materials for the artefacts came. They include limestone hills, shells, and copper ore.
2. Instruments or tools for making the artefacts.
3. Incomplete things, whose manufacturing process is not finished.
4. Waste material

Question 22.
Point out the strategies used by the Harappans to obtain their raw materials.
Answer:
They collected their raw materials from the subcontinent. They used the following strategies:

1. Establishment of Settlements:
They established settlements in the areas where raw materials were easily available. For example, they made settlements in places like Nageswar and Balakot from where they could get shells. They made settlement in Shortughai (Afghanistan) where sapphires were easily available. They made settlements in Lothal where carnelian and limestone were easily.got.

2. Sending Expeditions:
Sending expeditions was another technique that the Harappans used to get raw materials. They sent expeditions to Khetri in Rajasthan, for copper, and South India for gold. These expeditions helped them to have good relations with the local communities. In these places, beads from limestone made by the Harappans have been found. This shows the relations between the two peoples.

Researchers have found evidences for the culture called Ganeshwar-Jodhpur Culture from the Khetri region. This culture has many types of clay pots and plenty of copper things different from those found in the Harappan culture. There was a possibility that these people gave copper to Harappans.

Question 23.
Explain the commercial and cultural relations the Harappan people maintained with far-away countries.
Answer:
The Harappans collected raw materials for their manufactured goods (artefacts) from faraway places. This was done mainly through commerce. The Harappan people had commercial ties with Oman, Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Persia. It was from Oman they brought copper.

In the Omani copper and the artefacts made by the Harappans, there is the trace of nickel. It shows their common origin. There are also other evidences for the relations between Oman and Harappa. From Oman, researchers have discovered a jar covered with black clay. Such covering by clay prevents containers from leaking. We don’t know what was taken in these jars to Oman. There was a possibility that the things sent in the jars were exchanged for the copper from Oman.

There are proofs from literature to show there were relations between Harappa and Mesopotamia. Some Mesopotamian books show that Harappa had relations with regions like Dilmun, Magan and Meluha. Dilmun might the Bahrein Island. Magan must be another name for Oman.

Meluha has been recognized as a Sindhu region. Mesopotamian books talk about the calenian, sapphire, copper, gold and different types of timber from Meluha. This is written about Meluha in a Mesopotamian myth: “Let your bird be the ‘haja’ bird. Let its voice be heard in the palace.” Researchers think that the ‘haja’ bird is the peacock.

There are also scientific proofs to show that relations existed between Harappa and Mesopotamia. The Harappan seals, weights, dice used in gambling and beads show that.

The Harappans traded with Oman, Bahrein and Mesopotamia by sea. Mesopotamian books describe Meluha as a land of sea travellers. Moreover, the pictures of ships and boats found on the Harappan seals show that they were doing commerce using sea-routes.

Question 24.
The Harappan seals were excellent art creations. Discuss the special features and importance of those seals.
Answer:
The most important artefact in the Harappan civilization is their seals. From the various Sindhu towns, more than 2000 seals have been found. The seals are made from soft limestone. They are found in different sizes and shapes – around, square rectangular. On most seals, we find the pictures of animals. Some picture scripts (like the hieroglyphics, in Egypt) are also found.

The seals were used to make long-distance commerce easy. They were also * used to indicate ownership of property and also to decorate houses. In the opinion of A.L. Basham, they were also used as talisman for protection and good luck.

Seals were great artistic creations of the Harappan people. It is from these seals that we learn about their agriculture, animals, birds, trees, dress, ornaments, religious faiths, arts and foreign trade.

To make commerce with distant places easy, the containers were sealed. Goods were packed in bags for sending to different places. The mouth of the bag was tied with a string and it was sealed with wet clay. On the clay, they used to put their seals. If the goods reach their destinations without any damage to the seals, it would mean nobody has done anything wrong with the goods. These seals also helped to know who sent the goods.

Question 25.
Historians have different views about the centre of power in Harappa. Explain.
Answer:
There are no exact details about who the rulers were and which was the centre of power in Harappa.

1. Archaeologists found a huge building in Mohenjo Daro. It is considered to be a palace. But nothing about the building or other evidences are available.
2. Some historians argue that Harappan towns were ruled by Priest-Kings. A stone statue that was found in Mohenjo Daro was considered by them to be that of a Priest-King. Researchers were familiar with the history and Priest-Kings of Mesopotamia.
3. The statue in Mohenjo Daro resembled the Priest-King of Mesopotamia and that is why the historians thought Harappa too had Priest-Kings.
4. But we have not been able to understand much about the religions and rituals of the Harappan people. So there is no way to know whether the priests also handled political power.
5. Some people say that Harappan Society had more than one ruler. They say that regions like Mohenjo Daro, Harappa and others had separate rulers.
6.  R. S. Sharma feels that it was a group of traders that ruled Harappa.
7. The resemblance of the goods made, evidences from the planned settlements, similarity in the size and shape of bricks, establishing settlements in areas near raw materials, etc.
8. make some people think that Harappa had a single ruler. This has become more acceptable. It would be difficult to take decisions on such complex things by consulting everybody.

Question 26.
The shortcomings in the excavations in Harappa by John Marshal were remedied by Mortimer Wheeler. Comment.
Answer:
Mortimer Wheeler believed that the Harappan culture was destroyed by Aryan invaders. From the narrow street called Deadman-line, which was only 3 feet to 6 feet wide, in Mohenjo Daro, many scattered skeletons of men, women and children were discovered. Along with some skeletons, there were also weapons like axes and spears. It is based on these that Mortimer Wheeler came out with his theory of the Aryan Invasion. Wheeler maintained that these skeletons were of those killed in the Aryan attack.

Wheeler also tried to connect this evidence to the Rigveda. In Rigveda there is a reference to ‘puram’. Puram means fortress or citadel. The warlord of the Aryans is Lord Indran. indran is also called purandaran, which means one who destroys fortresses. It is based on this that some people argued that the Harappan culture was destroyed by the Aryans.
In the 1960s, George Dales, who is an archaeological researcher from America, questioned the evidences of mass murder in Mohenjo Daro. This is what he said:

1. The skeletons found in the Deadman-line do not belong to the same period.
2. There are no indications of any destructions or burning there. No skeletons of soldiers were found from there. Even in the fortress, which is the safest point in the city, there is no sign of any resistance.

Question 27.
Point out the special features of the Harappan Scripts.
Answer:
The Harappans knew writing. They were the first literate community of India. What we know about the Harrapan Scripts is from their seals. On the seals generally, there is a single-line writing. That is usually the name of the owner of his title or designation. Such scripts are seen on copper utensils, edges of jars, copper and day tablets, ornaments, ancient signboards and so on.

They also must have been j found, on things that get destroyed fast. Harappan Script is often called Mysterious Script. It acquired this j name because nobody has been able to read it. j Harappan Script had many symbols and signs. Most l writings are very small. Long writings were rare. The longest writing has only 26 letters of signs.

Harappan Script does not have any orderly alphabet. It has a number of signs. It is believed that there are J between 375 and 400 signs in it. Therefore people think that the Harappan Script is a kind of Picture Script. Scholars say that the picture script helped even those who were illiterate to get some message from the writing. Harappan writing was read from right to left, like Arabic or Urdu.

Question 28.
Explain the role played by the Aryan Invasion in the ruin of Harappan Culture. Examine the relevance of the theory of Aryan Invasion.
Answer:
Mortimer Wheeler believes that the Aryan Attack destroyed Harappan Culture. From the narrow street called Deadman-line, which was only 3 feet to 6 feet wide, in Mohenjo Daro, many scattered skeletons of men, women and children were discovered. Along with some skeletons, there were also weapons like axes and spears. It is based on these that Mortimer Wheeler came out with his theory of the Aryan Invasion. Wheeler maintained that these skeletons were of those killed in the Aryan attack.

Wheeler also tried to connect this evidence to the Rigveda in Rigveda there is a reference to ‘puranr’. Puram means fortress or citadel. The warlord of the Aryans is Lord  Indran. Indran is also called purandaran, which means one who destroys fortresses. It is based on this that some people, led by Mortimer Wheeler, argued that the Harappan culture was destroyed by the Aryans.

Question 29.
Write an essay on the economic system, society and political power centre of the Harappan Culture. Areas to be considered: means of livelihood (agriculture and animal husbandry), production of artefacts, internal and external trade, social differences, palaces and kings.
Answer:
A great culture flourished in the North-Western side of the Indian subcontinent, some 4500 years ago. This culture was first discovered in 1921 at the Harappan site. This was known as the Sindhu River Valley Culture, it was so-called because most of the sites were found on the banks of Sindhu and its tributaries.

Further researches showed that it was not limited to the Sindhu Valley alone, but it had spread even into Afghanistan. Therefore this culture is named the Harappan Culture.

The Harappans made their living by practising agriculture and animal husbandry. They had different crops. They also tamed different animals. From the burnt remains of grain and seeds found in the Harappan sites, archaeologists have been able to conclude the types of food the Harrapanstook.

They took/different types of grains and vegetables. They used wheat, barley, different kinds of pulses and peas and sesame (gingelly). They also used rice and millet. At the sites in Gujarat, remains of millet were found. Rice was seen only rarely.

The Harrapans ate a lot of fish and meat. The bones of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig were found at the Harappan sites. They tamed these animals. They had tamed even wild pigs, deer and gharial (large fish¬eating crocodile) which are usually wild animals.

Most Harappan sites were located in semi-deserts. Since the land was dry, there was a need for water for agriculture. For irrigation, the people made canals. At the Harappan site of Shortugai in Afghanistan, there are remains of the canals. Well, water was also used for irrigation. There were also huge clay jars to storing water for agricultural purposes.

In the Harappan society, there were economic and social differences among people. From the ways they buried their dead, the luxury they used and the different types of houses they lived in, show these differences.

Burials:
To find out the social differences among the people, a technique (strategy) that researchers use is studying about their burial rituals. The tombs found at the Harappan sites give some ideas about the burial rituals of the people. Generally, the Harappans buried their dead. But there are differences in digging the grave. On the upper sides some graves, along the edges, bricks were laid out. The differences in these graves indicate the differences in the social status. The graves with bricks might have been the graves of the rich.

Things of Luxury:
Another method the researchers use to find out the differences among people is studying the artefacts (things made by people).

They divide these things into two types.

1.  Useful things,
2. Things of luxury.

In the first category, there are things of everyday use. Pounding stone (for grinding grains), clay pots, needles; body-cleaning things etc. come in this category. These were commonly found in the graves of the lower town where common people lived. Things of luxury include uncommon things, things made of expensive materials not locally available, things made with the help of complicated technologies and so on.

Pots of faience (glazed pots) are examples of this. They are made with local or metallic sand mixed with colour and gum and are made firm in the fire. Since they were difficult to make they were considered expensive. Only the rich people had luxury things with them.

Different kinds of Houses:
From a study of the different houses, we can know about the social differences among the Harappan people. The houses ranged from single-room to multi-storied houses. They clearly indicate the social differences among people. The palatial houses belonged to the rich. The poor lived in single-room houses.

The Harappans were experts in bead-making. To make beads they used different kinds of materials. They used different kinds of stones like carnelian, jasper, sapphire, crystal, alabaster or limestone. They also used metals like copper, bronze and gold. They also made use of shells, faience and clay to make beads. They were also great traders. They traded with faraway places like Oman, Mesopotamian, Bahrein and Persia.

There are no exact details about who the rulers were and which was the centre of power in Harappa. Archaeologists found a huge building in Mohenjo Daro. It is considered to be a palace. But nothing about the building or other evidences are available.

Some historians argue that Harappan towns were ruled by Priest-Kings. Some people say that Harappan Society had more than one ruler. They say that regions like Mohenjo, Harappa and others had separate rulers. R. S. Sharma feels that it was a group of traders that ruled Harappa.

Question 30.
Discuss the discovery of the Harappan Culture and the problems connected with it.
Answer:
It was an English Official named Charles Masson, who visited a Harappan village in 1826, that first made an observation about the Harappan Civilization. He happened to see the remains of an old city. The engineers who were building the railway line between Karachi and Lahore in 1856 also found the remains of ancient Harappan towns. These discoveries were quite accidental. The engineers contacted the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). Following this, a team of archaeological researchers under Cunningham started excavations in Harappa.

Harappan culture was completely ruined. Gradually memories of such a Culture also faded away from the minds of people. Centuries later, people who started living in those areas where the Harappan Culture flourished often came across evidence of that Culture by chance.

Through floods or erosion, some of the evidence became very obvious. When ploughing the land or digging the ground for hidden treasures, they discovered remains of the ancient Culture. They did not know what to do with the things and implements they accidentally discovered.

Cunningham was the first Direct General of the Archaeological Survey of India. It was in the middle of the 19^th century that he began his excavations. In those days the archaeological researchers mainly used books and inscriptions for their studies. Cunningham was more interested in studying about the period between the 6^th to the 4^th century BC.

To find out the early settlements of the Harappan Culture, Cunningham relied on the descriptions of the Chinese pilgrims who visited India between the 7^th and 4^th century BC. All the inscriptions that were discovered by Cunningham during his researches were collected, codified and translated. He found that some of the artefacts discovered during the excavations had cultural values. He made special efforts to collect such things. But Cunningham’s conclusions had certain shortcomings.

Sites like Harappa were not mentioned in the descriptions by the Chinese pilgrims on whom Cunningham depended for his information. Harappa was not known as a historical city. Although Cunningham found certain Harappan things, he could not understand their importance.

He also failed to know how old they were. An Englishman had given Cunningham a Harappan seal. Although he inspected the seal thoroughly he could not assess its age. He tried to place it within the time-limit with which he was familiar. This mistake happened because like many others he also thought the Sindhu River Valley Civilization started with the growth of the first cities there.

Question 31.
Explain the salient features of the town planning in Mohenjo Daro.
Answer:
Mohenjo Daro is the most important site of the Harappan Culture. This was discovered after Harappa. It was from Mohenjo Daro that details regarding town planning, houses and seals of the Harappan Culture were got. This big city is situated in the Larkana District of Sind, on the shores of Sindhu River. The word Mohenjo Daro means the Mound of the Dead. The excavations made here brought to light the remains of a great city. The city was divided into two: The citadel and the Lower Town.

The Citadel (Fortress) is on a manmade platform. This is built on the western side of the city. This is the highest part of the city. There are two reasons for . its height. Firstly, it is built on higher ground. Secondly, the buildings are put up on a platform made of earthen bricks.

The fortress is protected with walls around it. Therefore it looks different from the Lower Town. In the fortress, there are tall buildings. They are public buildings. They were used for special public activities. The Warehouse and the Great Bath were the main structures in the fortress.

The Warehouse was the biggest building in Mohenjo Daro. The bottom part of the Warehouse is made of bricks. They still remain there. The upper part was built with wood. It got destroyed long ago. The Warehouse was used to store the left-over grain.

The most important structure in the fortress (citadel) of Mohenjo Daro is the Great Bath. It is in a rectangular shape. The pond is in the yard which is surrounded by corridors on all four sides. To get into the pond there are steps on the northern and southern sides. The bottom of the pond is made watertight using bricks and lime paste. This prevents the water from seeping down and making the pond dry.

There are rooms on 3 sides of the pond. There was a big well in one of the rooms. The water for the pond was brought from this well. There were provisions for filling the pond with water and to make the dirty water flow out into drains. Historians think that the Great Bath had a religious importance. They think that this Great Bath was used for ritual baths.

The Great Bath shows the importance the Harappans gave to cleanliness. It also shows their engineering and technical skills. The plight of Harappa was really bad. Although Harappa was the first site to be discovered, thieves took away all the bricks. This sad plight was noticed by Alexander Cunningham. He pointed out that a huge amount of bricks was taken away. Thus most of the ancient buildings were lost. But Mohenjo Daro was better protected.

Most Harappan settlements had two parts – a higher western part and a lower eastern part. The western part is called the citadel or fortress. It was protected by walls. But there are some differences in some places. In Lothal, the citadel had no walls around. But it was built very high.

The Lower Town was just below the citadel. This was also protected by walls. People lived here. Here we can see good examples of domestic architecture. The houses were made of bricks. The houses were ordered in the Grid System. The houses were built along both sides of the road, with adequate space between houses. The doors and windows were opened to face the central yard. It is believed that the yard was used for cooking and also weaving.

The houses did not have doors and windows that faced the street. All the houses had bathrooms. They were paved with bricks. The drainage system was excellent. Houses were different in size. There were single room and double room houses. There were also houses with more than two storeys. To get to the top stories there were staircases. Big houses had wells. It was dug in a room in such a way that even outsiders could draw water from it. Experts estimate that Mohenjo Daro had some 700 wells.

Houses were built on raised platforms. The settlements were well planned. The bricks were made to certain specifications. The same kind of bricks were used in most constructions. The drainage system in the Harappan cities was excellent. The drain of each house was linked to the drainage canal outside. The drainage canals were covered with bricks or sheets of rock. In some places, they covered the drainage canals with limestone slabs.

It was possible to clean the canals by removing the top coverings. There were manholes in the public drainage. It is believed that the drainage was made first and then came the houses. The drainage system shows the engineering skill of the Harappan people. It shows they had a town administration. It also shows how much importance they gave to hygiene and health. The drainage system was not limited to big cities. Even the settlements in places like Lothal had drainages.

You can Download Colonialism and the Countryside Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 10 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 10 Colonialism and the Countryside (Exploring Official Archives)

Question 1.
Who introduced the Zamindari system?
Answer:
Lord Cornwallis

Question 2.
Who are the jotedars?
Answer:
The rich farmers

Question 3.
Who practised shifting agriculture?
Answer:
Pahariyas

Question 4.
Which revolt was led by Sindhu and Kanu?
Answer:
Santhal Revolt

Question 5.
Where did the Deccan revolt take place?
Answer:
Bombay

Question 6.
Explain the relevance of the Bardwan Auction. What was the trick in it?
Answer:
In 1797 in Bardwan (today’s Bardaman in Bengal) there was an auction. It was a big public event. The Raja of Bardwan had a lot of estates and he sold them in auction. According to the permanent settlement, the zamindars were to give a fixed amount to the East India Company as land tax. The condition was that if the zamindars failed to pay the tax in time, their lands would be confiscated and sold in auction. The Raja of Bardwan had not paid the land taxes for his properties and there were huge unpaid amounts. It was in this condition that his estates were auctioned.

Many people took part in the auction. The estates were sold to the highest bidders. Soon the collector discovered a foul play in the auction. Most of the people who acquired the estates in the auction were
agents or servants of the Raja. They got these estates as his binamis. 95% of the sales in the action proved to be part of this foul play. Although the Raja sold his estates in public auction, he got back their control using his agents.

Question 7.
What were the reasons for bringing the Permanent Settlement? What changes did it bring in the villages?
Answer:
After establishing their authority in Bengal, the British tried to bring about a series of land tax systems there. Their aim was to make maximum profit. But all the land tax systems the British brought were failures. The Company failed to get a permanent income. In these circumstances the officials of the Company began to think of a new tax system.

In the 1970s, the village economic condition was in a crisis. Agricultural products decreased fearfully. Villagers faced famine. To save the financial system in Bengal from utter min, the officials of the Company were forced to do something. At the same time they had to increase the revenues of the government. They thought that both these aims could be achieved by encouraging people to invest more in agriculture. With this in mind, they formulated the Permanent Settlement. They thought by this, a fixed amount would flow into treasury and the investors would make good profit from the land. This is how they thought: The land tax is fixed. It won’t increase in the future. The investment in agriculture would save the financial situation in Bengal.

They thought the Permanent Settlement would help the small scale farmers and also landowners. They thought the landowners would invest in the land and they would be loyal to the Company.

The Company faced a big challenge in implementing the Permanent Settlement. They wanted people who would increase the agricultural products and pay the tax regularly to the government. In other words, the Company Officials did not know with whom they should make the Permanent Settlement. After having long discussions with the officials, Lord Cornwallis solved the problems and in 1793 it was executed.

The Permanent Settlement was done with the Rajas and Talukdars in Bengal. They were considered as Zamindars. The Zamindars were to give a fixed amount as tax to the government each year. As per villages. The places from they collected taxes were called zamindaris, The Zamindar had the responsibility of giving taxes in lump sum.

The farmers in the estates became the vassals of the zamindars. Zamindars collected taxes from the villagers. After giving the tax to the government, they kept the rest of the money. This was their income. The Zamindar had to make regular payments. If anybody failed, his zamindaris would be taken away from him.

Question 8.
Why did the Zamindars fail to collect the taxes? Explain.
Answer:
Firstly, the rate of the tax fixed by the Company was very high. Company had fixed the rates, thinking of the future losses. Since the company gets only a fixed amount, any profit made by the Zamindar will remain with him. These profits would come from increased production and increased prices. The Company argued that zamindars would make huge profits in the future and so the initial high tax should not prove difficult for them.

Secondly, the Company fixed these high taxes in the 1790s. It was a time of economic depression. The price of agricultural products came down drastically. Naturally the Zamindars could not pay taxes to the government, as they failed to get it from the farmers.

Thirdly, the Zamindars had to give a fixed amount to the Company. Whether the crops were good or bad, the amount had to be paid. There was the strict condition for this payment. If the payment was not received before sunset on the last day for payment, the zamindaris would be auctioned. This way many zamindars lost their zamindaris.

Fourthly, the Permanent Settlement reduced the authority of the Zamindars and controlled their autonomous state. Zamindars had to send their soldiers away. Zamindars were also denied the right to charge ‘customs’. Their ‘kacheris’ (courts) came under the authority of the Collector appointed by the Company. They also lost the power to maintain law and order in their areas. All this adversely affected them and their power to collect taxes from the farmers was reduced.

Question 9.
Zamindars made .some plans to save their zamindaris from being lost by auctions. Evaluate this statement.
Answer:
Zamindars used a technique called ‘false sale’. It was a technique they used in the transfer and sale of the zamindaris. For example, a Raja in Bardwan, transferred some of his zamidaris to his mother. Zamindaris in the name of women were not to be confiscated for auction.

Sometimes zamindars used their agents when their zamindaris were auctioned. When their zamindaris were auctioned because of non-payment of taxes in time, the agents of the zamindar took part in the auction and offered the highest bids winning the zamindaris. But they would not pay. Again the zamindaris would be offered for auction. The Zamindars would again send their agents and this way the process would go on endlessly. The government and the others taking part in the auction would be tired at the end, and the government will be forced to give the lands back to the original zamindar for a small price. Such false auctions were rampant.

Zamindars also used force to prevent the transfer of their lands. If outsiders tried to get into the zamindaris, the zamindars would use goondas to prevent them from occupying the land. Sometimes farmers themselves prevented outsiders from entering their land. There were many farmers who were loyal to their zamindars. They considered themselves as the loyal subjects of the zamindar. The sale of the land by auction would wound their self-respect and so they tried to prevent outsiders from coming there by using all kinds of means.

Question 10.
What are the reasons for the rise of Jotedars? What was their approach to the zamindars?
Answer:
At the end of the 18th century, the zamindars faced a lot of crises. But at this time the jotedars (a group of rich peasantry) were improving their situation. Francis Buchanan made a survey in the Dinajpur district of North Bengal. In his report, he gives a good description of these jotedars. In different places they were called by different names like howladar and mandal. Soon they became important people in the villages of Bengal.

By the start of the 19th century, jotedars became owners of extensive lands. Thousands of acres of land were occupied by them.

Local trade, giving money on interest, etc. were controlled by jotedars. Thus they were able to exercise control over the poor village peasants.

In the lands of jotedars, share cropping was the practice. Those who did the cultivation in these lands were called ‘adhiyar’. Jotedars often took more than
half of the total harvest as their share.

Question 11.
What is known as the 5th report? Explain its contents and importance.
Answer:
In 1813, a report about the administration and working of the East India Company was submitted to the British Parliament. This is called the 5th Report. Before this, 4 such reports were submitted to the Parliament. The 5th report had 1000 pages. More than 800 pages were appendixes. The report contained the following:

• Complaints of the farmers and zamindars.
• Reports of the district collectors.
• Statements of tax income.
• Reports by officials about the revenue and judicial affairs in Bengal and Madras.

Question 12.
The fight between Pahariyas and Santhals is called the fight between hoe and plough. Why?
Answer:
In the colonial period agricultural areas often exceeded their traditional boundaries. They spread into grazing lands and Rajmahal hills and forests. The spread of the agricultural area caused different types of conflicts. The most important of them was between Pahariyas and Santhals – hoes and ploughs. Hoes represent the Pahariyas as they used hoes for their shifting cultivation. Ploughs represent the Santhals.

Question 13.
Who was Francis Buchanan? What did he feel about the Rajmahal hills?
Answer:
At the beginning of the 19th century, Francis Buchanan travelled through the hills of Rajmahal. He realized that it was difficult to penetrate them. Only very few travellers dared to travel through those dangerous areas. Wherever he went, the people treated him in a hostile manner. They were suspicious of the officials of the government.

Question 14.
Who were Pahariyas? What is special about their cultivation style?
Answer:
In official documents, people who inhabited the highlands are called pahariyas. The journal of Buchanan gives some interesting accounts of the Pahariyas. His journal is in the form of a diary. The places he saw, the people he met, their customs, etc. are recorded in his journal. But he has not written about their origin or history. Therefore to recreate the history of Pahariyas, historians had to rely on the revenue records of the 18th century. They give much information about Pahariyas.

Pahariyas lived on the Rajmahal hills. For their livelihood they depended on the forest. They got their food from the forest. They also did shifting cultivation. They cleared small tracts in the forest and dug the ground with their hoes, planting pulses and com. After using the tracts for some time they left them fallow to restore their fertility and moved to another place.

For food, the Pahariyas collected a kind of flowers called ‘mahua’ from forests. They also collected cocoons of silkworms and resin for sale. They collected wood to make charcoal. They grazed their animals in the grasslands of the forests. Thus they did many things connected with the forest.

They lived in huts made among tamarind groves. They rested in the shade of trees. They considered the entire area their own. Their being and life depended on these forests.

Question 15.
Pahariyas strongly objected to the trespassing of their areas by others. Justify this statement.
Answer:
Pahariyas strongly objected to the trespassing of their areas by others. They were led by “Moopans”. Moopans controlled them and settled their quarrels. It was the Moopans that led the fights against other tribal people and the inhabitants of the plains. During famine, Pahariyas trespassed into the plains. It was in the plains that the regular farmers lived. Pahariyas attacked the people in the plain not only to get food but also to establish their supremacy over them. To be spared of attacks by Pahariyas, zamindars paid regular tributes (money) to the Moopans. Similarly, traders also paid some money to the Pahariya Moopans to get permission to travel through the tunnels in areas in their control. The Moopans gave the traders protection in return. The Moopans ensured that the goods of the traders were not looted by anyone.

Question 16.
Who were Santhals? What made them turn to agriculture?
Answer:
Santhals were in fact wandering tribal groups. They reached Bengal in the 1780s. The Zamindars of Bengal used their services to clear the forests and expand agriculture. British officials also used Santhals. The British tried to tame the Pahariyas and make them settled farmers. When they failed in their efforts, they sought the help of Santhals to tame the Pahariyas. The British invited the Santhals to live on the Rajmahal hills. Santhals were not like. Pahariyas, who were not ready to cut down trees and use the plough. But Santhals cleared forests and zealously ploughed the land.

The British gave a lot of land to the Santhals in the valleys of Rajmahal hills. They encouraged them to settle there. By 1832, this area began to-be called ‘Damin-o-koh’ and it was declared as the region of Santhals. The British asked them to settle there and take up farming using ploughs.

The British had asked the Santhals to cultivate at least in 10% of the land given to them. The region was surveyed, maps were prepared, boundaries were set and poles were fixed. This way the Santhal region was separated from the settled farmers of the plains and the Pahariyas of the hills.

Question 17.
What were the reasons for the Santhal Revolt? Who were their leaders? What were the outcomes of the Revolt?
Answer:
By 1850, the exploitation by outsiders became unbearable to the Santhals. They decided to fight against the Zamindars, the moneylenders and the government. They wanted to make an ideal world of their own with autonomy. In the beginning their protests were limited to robbing the homes of Zamindars and money lenders. But when the government tried to suppress the Santhals. the protests became violent. The rebels attacked “the Police and zamindars. They made their own army units and fought against their persecutors using guerrilla tactics. The leaders of the Santhal Revolt were two brothers – Sindhu and Kanu. The Revolt lasted 6 months. Finally the government put down the Revolt.

After suppressing the Revolt, the Government gave the Santhals a new area. It was called Santhal Pargana. It was some distance away from the Bhagalpur and Birdam districts. Government also made some reforms for the welfare of the Santhals. All these things were done with the intention of pacifying the Santhals.

Question 18.
The Permanent Settlement was not extended beyond Bengal, Justify this statement.
Answer:
The British rule in India started in Bengal. From there the British rule extended to the other parts of India. But the British were not interested in extending the Permanent Settlement into other parts of India. In the regions outside. Bengal new land tax systems called Ryotwari and Mahalwari were implemented.

Question 19.
The American Civil War and the Deccan Revolt have some connection. Do you agree with this statement?
Answer:
When the American Civil War started in 1861, there was great anxiety in the cloth manufacturing centres of England. Following the War, the import of raw cotton was drastically reduced. Only 3% of the normal import was got at this time. British government started sending urgent messages to India asking the Indian officials to send more cotton to England. The cotton mill owners of England came to Bombay see the situation in person and to encourage cotton cultivation here. The price of cotton skyrocketed.

The exporters of Bombay used this opportunity to make maximum profit. The British tried all they could to get more cotton from India. To encourage cotton cultivation, they gave advances to the ‘sahukars’ (moneylenders) of Bombay. The Sahukars gave money to the village moneylenders who gave this money to the farmers on high interest rates. It was easy for the farmers to get loans from these money lenders. The moneylenders were confident that they would get their money back. These developments helped the cotton farmers of Deccan to expand their cultivation.

Question 20.
What were the features of the Permanent Settlement? Was this system beneficial to the British?
Answer:
The Permanent Settlement was done with the Rajas and Talukdars in Bengal. They were considered as Zamindars. The Zamindars were to give a fixed amount as tax to the government each year. As per the Permanent Settlement, the Zamindars were not owners of the land. They had the status of tax collectors for the government. There were many villages under each zamindar. Some had up to 400 villages.

This system brought changes in the life of the farmers and zamindars of Bengal, the Pahariyas in the Rajamahal Hills and the Santhals. In the villages of Bombay Deccan also there were changes.

Throughout the 19^jj century, there were many agricultural revolts against money lenders and grain merchants. Some such important uprisings were the Deccan revolts of 1875. Revolts started in Pune and Ahmednagar districts. They were mainly against the moneylenders. But actually they were the results of the Permanent Settlement. The system was not beneficial to the British.

Question 21.
What were the features of the Ryotwari system? Was it beneficial to the British?
Answer:
The British realized that the Permanent Settlement they tried in Bengal was a failure. So in the Bombay Deccan area they tried a new system called the Ryotwari system. These are its features:

• It was an agreement done directly with the farmer. There were no middlemen between the farmers and the government. Farmers gave tax directly to the government.
• The income from different types of land was assessed and the ability of the farmer to give tax was also considered.
• A part of the income was decided as the tax payable to the government.
• A survey would be done every 30 years and then the rate might be increased. In that sense the Ryotwari was not a permanent system. It was renewed from time to time. On the whole it was beneficial to the British but not good for the farmers.

You can Download An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 9 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 9 An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara

Question 1.
The official who discovered the ruined remains of Vijayanagara?
Answer:
Colin Mackenzie

Question 2.
Krishnadevaraya – which dynasty did he belong to?
Answer:
Tuluva

Question 3.
The author of the book ‘Amuktamalyada’?
Answer:
Krishnadevaraya

Question 4.
Where are most of the temples of Vijayanagara seen?
Answer:
Holy Centre

Question 5.
Who is the builder of the Hazara Ram Temple?
Answer: Ramarayan

Question 6.
Who discovered the ruins of Hampi? How were they brought to light?
Answer:
The ruins of Hampi were discovered in 1800. They were discovered and brought to light by Colin Mackenzie. He was an engineer and a collector of antiques. He was an important official of the East India Company. He visited Hampi and made the first survey map of this site. He got the first information about Hampi from the priests in the Virupaksha Temple and the shrine of Pampadevi.

From 1836, calligraphic experts began to make their researches in Hampi. They collected a lot of inscriptions from Hampi and the temples there.

From 1856, photographers began to take pictures of the monuments there. They also took photographs of the various pictures. These pictures helped the scholars to study more about Hampi.

Historians now wanted to recreate the history of Vijayanagara. They used information from these sources to compare it with the descriptions of foreign travellers to this place. They also compared it with the information available in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil and Sanskrit books. Thus by studying things in minute detail, the historians tried to recreate the history of Vijayanagara. Further efforts were made by the Archaeological Survey India to find out more things about Hampi.

Question 7.
Cavalry was the most important feature of the army of Vijayanagara Empire. On the basis of this statement, discuss the horse-trade that existed at that time.
Answer:
Cavalry was the most important feature of the Vijayanagara army. It played a major role in battles.

Therefore countries were competing among themselves to import the best breed of horses from other countries. They got their horses from Central Asia and Arabia. The horse trade was initially controlled by the Arabs. Local traders called ‘Kudirai Chettis’ also took part in this horse trade. From 1498, Portuguese traders also came into this field. The Portuguese who reached the Western shores of the subcontinent tried to found trade centres and military establishments there. In military technologies they had the upper hand. This helped them to become a strong political power.

Question 8.
Krishnadevaraya was the most important ruler in the Vijayanagara Empire. Do you agree with this statement? Explain.
Answer:
Krishnadevaraya ruled from 15Q9 to 1529. It was time of expansion and unification of the Empire. He was one of the best warriors. In 1512, he captured the lands between Thungabhadra and Krishna Rivers. He also defeated the rulers of Orissa in 1514. Later he also overcame the Bijapur Sultan. Thus under Krishnadevaraya, the Vijayanagara army became the best in South India the Empire reached its peak.
Although battles and military preparations were constant, Krishnadevaraya was able to bring prosperity to his country.

He took great pains in unifying the country. He subdued all his enemies. He was a good administrator and an artist. He built many palaces and temples. He was the one who built the Hazara Ramaswami Temple and the Vittalaswami Temple in Vijayanagar. He also built many gate towers in different temples of South India. He founded a township called ‘Nagalapuram’ in memory of his mother Nagaladevi.

He encouraged arts and literature. He was known as ‘Andhra Bhoja’. In his palace there were many famous poets. He was a scholar and writer. It is believed that he wrote many books. Some of his known works are Amuktamalyada in Telugu and Ushaparinayam in Sanskrit.

Amuktamalyada is a book dealing with the strategies a king has to use. In it Krishnadevaraya explains the attitude rulers should have towards trade and traders. He wrote that a king has to develop the ports and thus encourage trading. A ruler should help foreign navigators who are forced to come to his country because of bad climate or illness. A ruler must have cordial relations with traders who import good breed horses and encourage them by giving them proper prices and gifts. If these things are done the good horses will not get into enemy hands.

Question 9.
Assess the position the military commanders had in Vijayanagara.
Answer:
Military commanders had great powers. They controlled the fortresses of the country. They could keep armed guards. They often moved their residence from one place to another. Agriculturists who were interested in getting fertile fields also accompanied them. These military commanders were called ‘Nayakans’. Most of them lived obeying the Vijayanagara kings. But sometimes they also rose in revolt. The revolts of the Nayakas were suppressed by the ruler.

In Vijayanagara Empire there was the system of “Amara Nayaka”. This system had many of the features of the “Iqta system’ of the Delhi Sultans. Amara Nayakas were military commanders. Vijayanagara kings gave them some regions to govern. These regions were called ‘Amara’.

The governing of these regions was done by the Amaranayaks. They collected taxes of different kinds from the farmers. traders, artisans and big merchants. A big portion of the income was used for their personal needs. The other part was spent in maintaining horses and elephants. A small portion was also spent on maintaining temples and irrigation.

Amaranayakas rendered military help to the kings of Vijayanagara. It was by using this military might that the kings brought the Southern Peninsula under their control. Amaranayakas were to give the king tribute every year. They also had to visit the king and give him gifts to show their loyalty to him. To show that the king had power over them, he used to transfer amaranayakas to different places. Even then by the 17th century, the amaranayakas became powerful and some of them started challenging the authority of the king. Some even established independent states. This caused the slow disintegration of Vijayanagara.

Question 10.
How were the water resources protected in Vijayanagara? What arrangements were made to ensure that people got sufficient water for their use?
Answer:
Vijayanagara is a dry area. Therefore rulers took special interest in preserving the water and distributing it to the needy places. Vijayanagara is located in the Thungabhgdra River basin. This river flows into north¬eastern direction. There are beautiful rocky hills all around it. These fills surround the city. From these hills, many streams flow into Thungabhadra.

The rulers of Vijayanagara built dams across these streams. They also made provision to collect rain water and supply it to the cities. They also got many ponds dug to collect water during rains. The most important pond they made was Kamalapuram Pond. It was made in the 15th century. Water from this pond was used for irrigation in the nearby fields. It was from this pond water was taken to the royal centre through small canals.

The most important irrigation work was the making of Hiria Canal. This canal took water from the dam built across Thungabhadra to different parts of the country. It was this canal that made irrigation possible in the fields of the valley that separates the ‘Holy Centre’ and the ‘City Centre’. This canal was built by the rulers of Sangama dynasty.

Question 11.
Do you think the rituals connected with Mahanavami Dibba are important? Explain.
Answer:
Celebrations like Mahanavami are connected to Mahanavami Dibba. Mahanavami means the Great Ninth Day. Mahanavami is a Hindu festival that lasts 10 days. This festival is in the months of September or October in the Autumn season. This feast is known by different names in different regions. In North India it is ‘Dussehra’, in Bengal it is ‘Durga Pooja’ and in South India it is ‘Navaratri’. The Vijayanagara kings exhibited their glory and authority during this festival. Mahanavami is celebrated with many rituals. Idol worship, veneration to the royal horse, animal sacrifice etc. were part of the rituals. The celebrations are made more enjoyable through dance performances, wrestling, processions with adorned horses, elephants, chariots and soldiers. Nayakas and regional chiefs owing loyalty to the main King come with gifts for their king and his guests. All these rituals had their symbolic meanings.

On the last day of the festival, a huge function was conducted in an open place. In that the King examines his army and also those of the Nayaks. On this occasion, the nayaks give tribute to the king. Along with the tribute, the nayaks also gave the king plenty of expensive gifts.

Question 12.
In the Royal Centre there were many buildings. What were the most important? What are their special features?
Answer:
One of the most beautiful buildings in the Royal Centre is the “Lotus Mahal”. This name was given by the British travellers who came here in the 19th century. Historians are not very sure for what purpose this structure was used. Mackenzie feels that this was a Council Chamber in which the King met his advisors. There are many temples in the Royal Centre. Most of the temples of Vijayanagara are seen in the Holy centre. But the Royal Centre is also rich in temples. One of the important temples in tl^e Royal Centre is Hazara Rama Temple. It was built by Ramayan I. It is believed that only the king and his family members used this temple.

The important idols of the Hazara Ramaswami Temple are not yet found. But the inscriptions and sculptures on the walls are still seen there. There are scenes from the Ramayana. They have been inscribed on the inner walls of the temple. When Vijayanagara was destroyed most of the constructions there also were destroyed. Still the tradition of building palatial structures was continued by the Nayaks. Many of the buildings made by them are still standing.

Question 13.
There was much importance for the temples in the history of Vijayanagara. Do you agree with this statement? Explain.
Answer:
Temples were also centres of knowledge. For maintaining the temples, the King and others gave land gifts. As a result, the temples grew into religious, cultural and economic centres. Kings believed that constructing temples, maintaining them and protecting them would increase people’s faith in them. It was a way to get public recognition of the wealth, authority and generosity of the kings.

The main reason for choosing Vijayanagar as the capital was the presence of the Virupaksha Temple and the Shrine of Pampadevi. The Vijayanagara kings claimed that they were ruling the country in the name of Virupaksha Devan. All royal edicts in Kannada were signed “Sri Virupaksha Deva’. By receiving the title ‘Hindu Suratrana’ the kings tried to establish their close relation with gods. Suratrana is the Sanskrit equivalent of the Arabic Sultan. So Hindu Suratrana means Hindu Sultan.

The kings of Vijayanagar continued with the old temple traditions and they expanded them. They also started new things. The statues of the kings were exhibited in the temples. The visit of the King to the temple was considered a big official event. At this time the major Nayakas of the country accompanied the king.

Question 14.
Describe the architectural styles (Vastu) of the Vijayanagara temples. What were the special features that appeared at that time?
Answer:
In the temple construction, some new features appeared. The most important innovation was the construction of huge gate towers and halls. These were the symbols of royal authority. Therefore these towers were called ‘Rayagopuras’. They were very tall, like skyscrapers, and sometimes they were even bigger than the temple itself. They showed even from a far distance the presence of a temple.
The Vijayanagara kings constructed halls and corridors with tall pillars. These corridors were made in such a way that they went around the main worshipping area. The halls had many pillars with inscriptions. The temples had extensive grounds on all the sides. Two of the temples in the Holy Centre are especially important – Virupaksha Temple and Vittala Temple.

Virupaksha temple was built over centuries. Evidence shows that the first construction was done in the 9th or 10th century. With the establishing of the Vijayanagara kingdom, the temple was expanded. In front of the temple there is a huge hall. It was Krishnadevaraya who got it built. It was a mark of his coronation. This hall is decorated with pillars with inscriptions. The eastern gate tower was also made by him. Because of the halls and towers, the temple itself was confined to a small area.

In the temple complex there were many halls. They were used for different purposes! In some halls there were idols of deities. These halls were used for conducting dance performances, music concerts and such celebrations. Some halls were used for celebrating the wedding of deities. Some were for the deities to swing. On all these occasions special idols were used. They were different from the idols in the main temple.

Vittala Temple is another important one. The main idol here is Vittala, a form of Siva. Vittala is a deity that is commonly revered in Maharashtra. The Vijayanagara kings used different traditions to get acceptability. It was with this purpose that they brought Vittala to Karnataka. There are many halls here. There is a temple here made on the model of a chariot. It is a unique structure.
An important feature of the temple complex is the ‘chariot streets’. From the tempie tower it lies in a straight line. These’streets are paved with stone. There are also pillars with small halls. Traders have their stalls here.

The temple construction tradition was continued by the Nayaks. Some of the most beautiful regional towers were made by Nayaks.

Question 15.
What does Domingo Pius say about the markets of Vijayanagara?
Answer:
Domingo Pius says that the markets were working along the most beautiful and extensive streets of Vijayanagara. The traders stayed there. They had all sorts of ornaments, gems, pearls, jewels and clothes. Everything under the sun was available there. Every evening there was a market there. Not only grains, vegetables and fruits, but even horses were sold in these evening markets.