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You can Download Kings and Chronicles: The Mughal Courts Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 8 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 8 Kings and Chronicles: The Mughal Courts

Question 1.
The founder of the Mughal Empire?
Answer:
Babur

Question 2.
The last ruler of the Mughal Empire?
Answer:
Bahadur Shah Safar

Question 3.
The administrative language of the Mughal Empire?
Answer:
Persian

Question 4.
The language that came from a mixture of Persian and Hindavi?
Answer:
Urdu

Question 5.
Those who opposed the Mughal art and painting?
Answer:
Ulamas

Question 6.
The author of Badshahnama?
Answer:
Abdul Hamid Lahori

Question 7.
The ruler who reintroduced Jizya?
Answer:
Aurangzeb

Question 8.
The first capital of the Mughals?
Answer:
Agra

Question 9.
The ruler who brought ‘jarokha darshan’ (public audience)?
Answer:
Akbar

Question 10.
Finance Minister (Head of Revenue Department) in the Mughal rule was called?
Answer:
Diwan-i-ala.

Question 11.
Which Mughal ruler is connected with the 1st Battle of Panipat?
Answer:
Babur

Question 12.
What are Chronicles?
Answer:
As per the instructions from the Mughal Emperors, the palace historians kept a diary of the important happenings in the country. These are the Chronicles. They talk about the achievements of the Mughal rulers. They also give chronologically important events. Chronicles are an important source to study about the Mughal Capital and Mughal Empire.

Question 13.
Why was Akbar especially interested in Abul Fazl?
Answer:
Abul Fazl was the writer of Akbamama. Abul was born and brought up in Agra. He was well-versed in Arabic, Persian, Greek Philosophy and Sufism. He was a scholarly debater and had independent thinking. He severely criticised the views of conservative ulamas. Akbar was attracted by these qualities of Abul Fazl and so he appointed him as his advisor and spokesman. Akbar’s intention was to release the nation from the control of orthodox ulamas. As a palace historian, Abul Fazl was able to formulate ideas related to the administration Akbar liked him very much.

Question 14.
What is special about nastaliq style of writing?
Answer:
Akbar showed great interest in writings in nastaliq script. Nastaliq script is one of the most fluid calligraphy styles for the Arabic alphabet. It has short verticals with no serifs, (serif is a.small line attached to a letter) and long horizontal strokes. It is written using a piece of trimmed reed called “qalam”(“pen” in Arabic) and carbon ink, named “davaf”.

Question 15.
Point out the information we get from the Mughal Chronicles
Answer:
Chronicles give a chronological account of incidents. The Mughal chronicles are great sources to know about Mughal history.

• They give information regarding the founding of the Mughal Empire.
• They tell us about the policies and schemes the Mughal Kings wanted to implement.
• They tell us how theories of all kinds developed and how they reached the people.

Question 16.
Point out the importance of pictures in the manuscripts of the Mughal period.
Answer:
Artists, those who made pictures, played a big role in writing the manuscripts. In the Chronicles along with descriptions of things, pictures were also included. They gave a visual picture of things. The manuscript writer left the following page blank if he felt there was a need for a picture to illustrate the matter. In these blank spaces, artists drew pictures. These pictures were small in size and so they were called ‘miniatures’.

The pictures in the manuscripts increased their beauty and utility.

They showed things in a visual manner of things that would be difficult to describe using words, they give a good picture of the country and the power of the rulers.

Question 17.
Which were the Mughal capitals in India?
Answer:
In 1707 Aurangzeb died. After his death, 13 rulers of the Mughal dynasty ruled India. They were known as Later Mughals. During their rule, the dynasty’s power began to decline. As the Central administration became weak, regional rulers started becoming more and more autonomous. The Later Mughals failed to prevent foreign attacks. Although the Mughal Empire was breaking up, the Mughal rulers tried to maintain their status and glory. They continued symbolically. In 1857, the British dethroned the last Mughal ruler Bahadur Shah Safar II. With this, the Mughal rule ended. The Mughal capitals were Agra (Babur), FatehpurSikri, Lahore (Akbar), Shajahanabad (Shah Jahari).

Question 18.
What were the aims of the Mughal rulers in getting the Chronicles written?
Answer:

• One of the aims was to let people know the policies of the state.
• Another aim. was to let the enemies of the country know that their efforts were bound to fail and they would be defeated.
• A third aim was to leave the records of the Mughal rule to future generations.

Question 19.
What does ‘zulh-e-kul’ mean? What were the steps taken by Akbar for this?
Answer:
Zulh-e-kul means complete peace. The Chronicles point out that in the Mughal Empire there were Hindus, Jains, Zorashtrians, Buddhists, Muslims, and Christians. The Emperor, Akbar, was a tolerant person and he extolled the virtues of unity, peace, and stability. He worked with all communities to ensure peace and justice. Thus zulh-e-kul was jan important feature of Akbar’s rule.

• Abul Fazl points out that it was the base of an enlightened rule.
• It helped all the religious groups to have their faith and (nodes of worship. But it did not allow the different groups to fight or jeopardise the security of the country. ,
• Akbar made special efforts to put Zulh-e-kul into practice. It was executed through state policy. He asked all the officials to follow this policy. He also introduced and social and religious reforms to facilitate zulh-e-kul.
• Akbar stopped taking religious taxes. There were taxes for taking bath in the holy places like Prayag and Banaras. Non-Muslims had to pay Jizya. All these were stopped by Akbar as they were religious taxes.

Question 20.
Who introduced jarokha darshan? What was its purpose?
Answer:
Akbar introduced this. The day of the Emperor started with prayers. Then he would appear in a balcony which faced eastward. Jharoka is this balcony. All kinds of people – soldiers, traders, artisans, agriculturists, women with sick children – waited for this darshan of the Emperor* This is called jharoka darshan. This was a way of getting the support of the people and increasing the acceptability of the government.

Question 21.
From where did the Mughals get the idea of ‘divine light’ (Divya Prakasam)?
Answer:
Mughals believed in the theory of divine kingship. They believed and propagated that their authority came directly from God. The court historians explained the legend of Queen Alanqua to propagate this divine kingship theory and divya prakasam. Alanqua was taking rest in her camp. She was conceived by the rays of the sun. Her son had bequeathed this divine right to all the future kings. Thus the Mughal king also got this divine light.

Question 22.
What does Abul Fazl say about picture painting. Was it different from the opinion of the Ulamas? Explain.
Answer:
Abul Fazl qualified picture painting as a magical art. He believed that it had the power to give life to even inanimate things.

Pictures showing the Emperor, the court, and people created constant conflicts between the rulers and the ulamas. These ulamas based their objection on the Koran and Hadith. The ulamas said that making pictures of people is against Islamic law. By making pictures, the artist is questioning the authority of God to create things. They believed that the power of creation belonged entirely to God.

Question 23.
Who was Jahanara? What were her contributions to the architectural field?
Answer:
Jahanara was the daughter of Shah Jahan. She was in charge of the gardens and buildings. Shah Jahan made a new capital known as Shahjahanabad.
Jahanara was the one who planned many of the buildings in the new capital. Here a two-storeyed inn with a fine sit-out and garden needs special mention. She was the one who planned the Chandni Chowk Bazar, the main center in Shajahanabad.

Question 24.
Describe the processes involved in preparing manuscripts.
Answer:
Many people were involved in the preparation of a manuscript. They included paper manufacturers, copywriters, guilders (beautifiers), artists (who drew pictures) and binders (those who bound the manuscripts in book form).

• Paper manufacturers prepared the sheets.
• Scribes or calligraphers copied the text. ‘
• Gilders made the pages look fine.
• Artists drew pictures.
• Binders arranged the pages and bound them neatly. The completed manuscript became a valuable thing, a thing of beauty and scholastic treasure. The beauty of the manuscripts showed that the Mughal emperors loved knowledge and beauty.

Question 25.
Akbar is considered the greatest of the Mughal rulers. Why?
Answer:
Humayun was the father of Akbar. After Humayun’s death in 1556, Akbar became the ruler. Akbar is considered the greatest Mughal ruler. Here are the reasons:

• He not only expanded his empire but also unified it. He made the empire the biggest, strongest and richest at that time.
• He succeeded in extending the boundaries of the Mughal Empire up to the Hindukush Mountain Range.
• He was able to resist the expansion schemes of the Uzbeks in Central Asia and the Safavid dynasty of Iran.

Question 26.
Who was Gulbadan Begum? What were her contributions?
Answer:
When Akbar asked Abul Fazl to write the history of his rule, he also asked his aunt Gulbadan to help. He asked her the record the memoirs of Babur and Humayun. Akbar thought that this would help Abul Fazl in his work. Gulbadan Began accepted this challenge and wrote a book titled ‘Humyun-nama’. It was the description of Humayun and his rule. It looks into the private life of the Mughals. It is not a book of praise-singing. She has written here about the fights and confrontations among the kings and princes. She has also shown how the elderly ladies of the family helped in solving such disputes.

Question 27.
Different kinds of greetings were in existence in the Mughal court. Describe them.
Answer:
Different kinds of greetings were in existence in the Mughal Court to show respect for authority. It showed the status of each one in the court.

• Deep Prostration: This was shown to those with the highest power.
• ‘Sijda’: In this a person knelt and touched his forehead on the floor.
• During Shah Jahan’s time, he first introduced ‘zaminbos’ (kissing the ground) and later ‘chartaslim’. Another greeting was kornish. Here the subject places his right palm on his forehead and bows. By bowing his head, the seat of intellect and wisdom, he is showing his respect for the authority.

Question 28.
What were the special features of the Mughal Lordship?
Answer:
The Mughal lords came from different backgrounds. Members were chosen from different religious and Class and Tribal groups. There were Mughals, Afghans, Turks, Persians, Indian Muslims and Rajputs in this assembly.

Question 29.
How did the word ‘Mughal’ originate? Is it something the Mughals themselves chose? Explain:
Answer:
Mughal comes from Mongol. Today that name reminds us of the greatness of an Empire. It was not a name that was chosen by the rulers themselves. Through their fathers, the Mughals were the successors of Timur, the ruler of Turkey. They called themselves Timurids. Through his mother, the first Mughal ruler, Babur, had relations with ChengizKhan, the ruler of Mongols. Babur spoke Turkish. He actually considered the Mongols as ‘uncivilized’.

Question 30.
Who were the writers of the Mughal Chronicles? What ware the things they stressed in their writing?
Answer:
The writers of the Mughal Chronicles were court (palace) historians. They stressed matters connected to the ruler, his family, the court, nobles and lords, wars, administrative arrangements and so on. Their – historical writings were about the Emperors. Thus. we have Akbarnama, Shah Jahannama and Alangirnama (Alangir was a title of Aurangzeb).

Question 31.
What was the administrative language of the Mughals? Why did they choose that language?
Answer:
Persian was the administrative language. People who were well-versed in it got power and status. The Emperor, his family members and the elite of the court spoke in Persian. It was used at all levels of the administration. Therefore even accountants, clerks and other officials learned it. People who came from different parts of the subcontinent also used Persian.

Question 32
Who were the successors of Akbar?
Answer:
His successors were three able rulers – Jahangir (1605-27), Shah Jahan (1628-58) and Aurangzeb (1658-1707).

Question 33.
What were the three special features of Mughal theory „ about kingship?
Answer:
a) Divine Right of Kings.
b) Zulh-e-kul.
c) Social contract.

Question 34.
Shah Jahan was very much interested in architecture.
– Evaluate this statement.
Answer:
Shah Jahan was greatly interested in architecture. He built some beautiful and imposing buildings. In 1648 he moved his capital from Agra to Shahjahanabad. He built the Red Fort, Juma Masjid, Chandni Chowk (an extensive maidan with rows of trees) to include in his new capital Shahjahanabad. The new capital was exquisite enough to show the pomp and greatness of the Mughal Empire.

Question 35.
The center of the Mughal Court was the king. Justify.
Answer:
The Chronicles show that the administration of the Empire was fully vested in the ruler. He was the supreme authority in administration, judiciary, and military. Others had to simply obey his orders.

Question 36.
When did Mughal Rulers take titles? Did they give titles to others?
Answer:
Mughal Emperors took many fancy titles. Such titles included common titles like Shahanshah (King of Kings or Rajadhiraja), and special titles like Jehangir (One who conquers the world) and Shah Jahan (King of the World). They took these titles on coming to the throne. These titles indicate that the Mughal emperors had control even beyond the boundaries of their country. Contemporary history talks about diplomatic relations and also conflicts that existed between the Mughal rulers and their neighbors. The reasons for the conflicts were regional interests.

Question 37.
Who were the inmates of the ‘Harem’ of the Mughal rulers? How many types of wives did the rulers have?
Answer:
The household of the rulers was called harem. Harem is a Persian word meaning a holy place. It included the ruler’s wives, concubines, close and distant relatives including mother, step-mothers, foster-mothers, sisters, daughters, daughters-in-law, aunts, children, maid servants, and slaves.
The mughal rulers had two types of wives – begums and aghas.

Begums came from royal families. They came with a lot of dowry (mahar) by way of things, ornaments and money. They received preferential treatment in their husband’s household. They were given greater consideration by their husbands. The other wives (aghas) were not from royal families.

Question 38.
The Mughal aristocrats were the pillars of the Empire. Do you agree?
Answer:
The Mughal aristocrats were definitely the supporting pillars of the empire, the main pillar being the ruler. They were the officials and collectively they were called the aristocrats. They were the ruling class. Considering the importance they had during the Mughal period, some historians called the Mughal rule as ‘Rule by the Aristocrats’ or, to use the official name ‘oligarchy’.

Question 39.
Do you think there was a close relationship between the aristocrats (officials) and the Mansabdari system?
Answer:
There was a close relationship between the aristocrats (officials) and the Mansabdari system. Akbar was the one who introduced the mansabdari system. He did it to organize a strong and efficient army. The civil duties of the mansabdars were combined with their military service.

• In this system each official was given the status of mansab. The person who got it was a mansabdar.
• The status of mansabdar had two aspects – zat and zawar. Zat was a private title. It showed the position of the person in the administrative chain and his salary. Zawar shows the number of cavalrymen a mansabdar had to keep under him.

Question 40.
The Mughal administration had adequate arrangement for keeping the records and exchange information. Evaluate this statement.
Answer:
The Mughal rulers gave important consideration for maintaining records. All royal orders (farman) were presented in the royal court. All applications and documents were preserved by a group of palace scribes. These scribes or writers were called ‘waqianavis’. They worked under the ‘mir bakshi’ (head of the military). The agents of the aristocrats and the regional authorities recorded all the processes of the royal court under the heading “News from the Exalted Court” or “Akbarat”.

The times and dates of the Royal Court have been recorded here. ‘Akbarat’ has all the details regarding the attendance in the Court, the assigning of jobs and titles, the diplomatic missions, the gifts received and even the enquiries the Emperor made about the health of the officials. This information is quite valuable in writing the life histories and activities of rulers and aristocrats. The Mughal postal system helped in exchanging communication. It was through the royal post that news and official documents were sent all over the country.

There were runners to carry the post and to pass information to the Emperor quickly. It is reported that there were 4000 runners in the country. They carried the papers in the form of scrolls carried in bamboo boxes. They worked all the time with hardly any rest. This postal system (by runners) helped the king to get information from faraway places in record time.

Question 41.
Describe the features of the Mughal Provincial , Administration Do you think it was easy to control the Provinces? Justify.
Answer:
The Mughal Empire was divided into many Provinces. They were called subas. Provincial Administration was a miniature model of the Central administration. In the Provinces also there were Ministers and officials to help them. The head of the provincial administration was called Subedar (Provincial Governor). He was appointed by the Emperor. The Subedar had to report directly to the Emperor.

• Each province was divided into districts, called sirkars. They were under officials called faujdars (commandants). There were plenty of footmen and gun-carrying soldiers in every district.
• The sirkars were divided into parganas (sub-districts). The officials in charge of parganas were known as qanungo, chaudhuri, and quazi. Qanungo kept the revenue records. Choudhari collected the revenues. Qazi handled judicial matters.
• Parganas were divided into villages. They were administered by gramasabhas.

Question 42.
Kandahar was a problem for the Mughal rulers. Evaluate this statement.
Answer:
Kandaharwas an important military and commercial city. This was a fort-city and there were conflicting claims about this between the Mughals and the Safavids of Iran. Initially, Kandahar was under Humayun. Two years after the death of Humayun Iran took possession of that city. In 1595 Akbar recaptured it. Although the Safavids had diplomatic ‘ relations with the Mughals, they continued to claim Kandahar. In 1613, Shah Jahan sent a diplomatic representative to the Court of Shah Abbas in Iran. The idea was to let the Mughals continue to have power over Kandahar. But the mission failed. In 1622, the Persian Army attacked Kandahar. The Mughal army was not battle-ready to defend the place. They were forced to give up Kandahar to Safavids. All efforts to recapture it later failed.

Question 43.
Describe the important considerations that influenced Mughal relations with the Ottomans.
Answer:
The main considerations were religious and economic. The Mughals wanted to ensure easy access to their traders and pilgrims in areas under Ottoman Turks. They especially wanted to ensure freedom to travel in Hijaz which was part of Ottoman Arabia. Mecca and Medina are located there. The Mughal emperors had both religious and trade interests in these places.

Question 44.
Critically examine the relations between Akbar and the Jesuits.
Answer:
Akbar was keen on knowing about Christianity. So he sent his messengers to Goa to invite Jesuit priests to the Mughal Court. In 1580, the first Jesuit group reached Fatehpur Sikri and spent nearly two years there. They talked to Akbar about Christianity. They also talked to Ulamas about the good aspects of the Christian religion.

Two more Jesuit groups were sent to India. They reached in the Lahore Mughal Court in 1591 and 1595. The Jesuits have recorded certain things from their private observations. They throw light on the character and thoughts about the Emperor. When there were public meetings, the Jesuits were given seats quite close to Akbar. He had very cordial relations with them

You can Download Through the Eyes of Travellers Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 5 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 5 Through the Eyes of Travellers (Perceptions of Society)

Question 1.
The book of AIBiruni.
Answer:
Kitab-ul-Hind

Question 2.
Ibn Battuta’s home country.
Answer:
Morocco

Question 3.
What does Ulak mean?
Answer:
Horse Post (Mail)

Question 4.
The traveller who argued that in India there was no private land ownership.
Answer:
Bernier

Question 5.
The person who talked about Oriental Despotism:
Answer:
Montesquieu

Question 6.
The language in which Bemierwrote his book:
Answer:
English

Question 7.
The scholar who wrote Rihla and made it into book form:
Answer:
Ibn Juzayy

Question 8.
Travellers had different aims. Mention any four.
Answer:

1. Look for a  job
2. Escape from natural disaster
3. Merchants, traders, soldiers, pilgrims, priests.
4. Spirit of adventure

Question 9.
Mention the names of three travellers that visited. India between the 11^th and 17^th centuries.
Answer:

1. Al-Biruni came to India from Uzbekistan in the 11^thcentury.
2. Ibn Battuta came from Morocco in the 14^th century.
3. Francois Bemierfrom France came in the 17^th century.

Question 10.
Where did Al-Biruni live? How did he reach Gazni?
Answer:
AI-Biruni was born at Khwarisnr in Uzbekistan. Khwarism was an important centre of knowledge and so he got the best education possible. He was a linguist – a scholar in many languages. He knew Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Hebrew and Sanskrit. He was not familiar with Greek. But he had read the books of Plato and other Greek philosophers through Arabic translations.

In 1017 Sultan Mahmud Gazni attacked Khwarism. He made many people prisoners and took them to Gazni. Al-Biruni was one of them. Although he came to Gazni as a prisoner, he began to like the place. He entered the services of Mahmud Gazni and remained in Gazni until he died at the age of 70.

Question 11.
What were the two special features of Al-Biruni’s writing?
Answer:
Since he was a linguist, he was able to compare many languages and make correct translations. He translated many Sanskrit books. He translated the Sanskrit grammar book by Patanjali into Arabic. He translated the books of Euclid, the Greek Mathematician, into Sanskrit for use by his Brahmin friends.

Question 12.
Al-Biruni himself has specified the reasons behind his writing. What are they?
Answer:

1. As a help to those who wanted to discuss religious issues with Hindus.
2. As a storehouse for those who like to live with Hindus.

Question 13.
Ibn Battuta was a fearless traveller. Do you agree with this statement? Justify your answer.
Answer:
In those days travels were risky. There were robbers everywhere. Battuta himself was attacked by robbers a number of times. He gave preference to travel with his friends in a caravan. But this did not protect him from robbers. When he was going from Multan to Delhi, his caravan was attacked by robbers. Many of his co-travellers were killed. Ibn Battuta was severely wounded.

Ibn Battuta was an Enthusiastic and determined traveller: Difficulties along the way and the attacks from robbers did not stop him. Before he returned to Morocco, he travelled extensively in North Africa, West Asia, Central Asia, the Indian subcontinent, and China. It is believed that he reached even China.

Question 14.
Ai-Biruni faced some problems in understanding and writing about India. Point them out.
Answer:
Al-Biruni was conscious of the problems involved in understanding strange countries. He has mentioned three things that proved difficult:

1. The first problem was language – Sanskrit was quite different from Arabic and Persian languages. It was not easy to translate the concepts from one language into another.
2. The second problem was the differences in religions and rituals.
3. The third problem was the secluded people who were interested only in their things. They looked at foreigners with suspicion and were not willing to mingle with them freely.

Question 15.
What was the attitude of Al-Biruni to the Varna System? Give his arguments against untouchability.
Answer:
Al-Biruni accepted the Class distinctions as put forward by Brahmins. But he did not approve of the untouchability practised by them. He said that things that were impure would always try to get back their purity and succeed. For example, the sun purifies the air. The salt in sea-water prevents it from getting polluted. Without this natural purification, life would be impossible on this earth. He argued that untouchability is against natural laws.

The ideas of Al-Biruni exercised a powerful influence in the study of Sanskrit books. The rules regarding Varna System were formulated favouring the Brahmins. In real life, Varna was not so strict. For example, the antyaja (who were born outside the Varna System) were expected to work for the agriculturists and zamindars for small wages. Although they were socially suppressed, they were included in the economic activities.

Question 16.
Ibn Battuta has said that in India there was an excellent transport and communication system. Justify.
Answer:
The country had taken special measures to encourage traders. Along most trade routes, there were guest houses and inns. The postal system in India surprised Ityi Battuta. This helped the merchants to send their goods to distant places and also to repay-their debts. The postal system was efficient. From Sindhi it took only a few days for goods to reach Delhi. The news sent by the spies would reach the Sultan in just five days.

Ibn Battuta has said that there were two types of posts in India -the horse post and the footmen post. Horse post was called ‘uluq’. Royal horses were posted every 4 miles and his helped in making communication fast. The footmen-post was called ‘dawa’. ‘Dawa’ means 1/3 of a mile. Within a mile, there were 3 camps for the footmen.

Question 17.
There were serious differences between the observations of Ibn Battuta and Bernier. What are they?
Answer:

Question 18.
How do you look at the observation of Bernier Wlfo thought that the Oriental world is inferior and worse than the Western world? Justify your answer with examples.
Answer:
Bernier presented India on the model of the binary opposition. This way India was presented as directly opposite to Europe. He also presented the differences between India and Europe on a comparative scale. India was at the lowest rung of the ladder. In short, Bernier felt that India was inferior and worse than the. Western countries.

Question 19.
How did the words Hindu, Hindustan and Hindavi come into existence?
Answer:
The word Hindu came from an old Persian word. In the 6-5 centuries BC, this word was used to indicate the region lying east of the River Sindhu.

The Arabs continued using this expression. They called this region Al-Hind and the people ‘Hindi’. Later, the Turks started calling the people Hindu and their land as Hindustan and their language Hindavi. None of these was indicative of any religion. The word Hindu was used to indicate somebody’s religion much later.

Question 20.
Why did Bernier think that the royal ownership of land is highly destructive?
Answer:
He thought like that because:

1. Landowners could not pass on their land to their heirs.
2. They were not interested in maintaining or improving the land.
3. It prevented the landowners who wanted to bring prosperity to their land from taking positive steps and make long term investments.
4. It caused destruction of agriculture.
5. It led to the suppression of farmers.
6. It adversely affected the living standards of people.

Question 21.
What is the opinion of Bernier about the Middle Class? Can you agree with his argument?
Answer:
Bernier says that there was no Middle Class in India. There were only 2 classes – the poor and the rich. The poor were the majority and they were suppressed by the ruling minority. There were too poor and too rich people, but there was no middle state. Bernier did not have a good impression about the Mughal Empire. He assessed the Mughal King as follows:

1. The king was the king of beggars and uncultured people.
2. The Mughal cities and towns were in a state of ruin and the air there was polluted.
3. The fields were full of bushes and marshlands which caused diseases.

Question 22.
How did Bernier assess the Mughal Empire?
Answer:
Bernier said that the sole reason for the bad condition in the country was the royal ownership of the land. But modem historians do not agree with him. There is no indication in the Mughal documents that the land belonged to the lung. For example, Abdul Fasal, who was a scholar and historian during the reign of Akbar, said the land taxes were a reward for the sovereignty (supreme authority) of the king.

The king charged taxes from his subjects in return for the protection given to them. It was not taxes for the land owned by the ruler. Land tax was often high. That might be reason why the Europeans travellers thought that all the land belonged to the king. In fact, it was neither tax nor land tax. It was a tax on the crops.

Question 23.
Do you think the description of the cities by Bernier was an oversimplification of things? Why?
Answer:
In the 17^th century, 15% of Indians lived in cities. This was more in proportion than the people living in cities in Western Europe. In spite of that the Mughal cities were called camp towns by Bernier. Camp Towns are those that depend on the capital city for existence. During the Mughal rule, the capital was often shifted. Bernier says that when the capital was moved to a new city, it developed fast, but when the capital was moved from there, the city got ruined. Cities did not have strong social and economic bases. They relied on royal protection.

There is some kind of contradiction in what Bernier says about cities. He says the manufacturing sector was in ruin. But he says there were large scale exports of products. Bernier’s is an oversimplification of things. At that time there were manufacturing cities, trade cities, port cities, holy cities, and pilgrimage centres. Their existence shows the prosperity of the trading and working communities.

Among the merchant and trading communities, there were strong bonds, often blood relations. They had organized themselves into organizations based on caste and profession. In Western India, these trading communities were called Mahajans. Their top leader was Seth. The topmost one in the city was called nagarseth.

In the city, there were doctors (Hakim, Vaidyas), teachers (Pandits, Mullah), advocates (Vakil), Artists, Musicians and calligraphers. Some of them were working for the king. But most of them worked for the people in bazars and markets.

Question 24.
Ibn Battuta says there was distinction even among slaves. Based on this statement, assess the situation of the women slaves in the country.
Answer:
Battuta’s descriptions make it clear that there were discriminations even among slaves. Under the Sultan many women slaves served. Some of them were experts in dance and music. Once, Battuta had an opportunity to enjoy their performance, during the wedding celebrations of the Sultan’s sister.

Women slaves also worked as spies of the Sultan. The Sultan employed them to secretly observe the activities of his nobles. Slaves, both men and women, were generally employed for household work. Ibn Battuta says that to carry palanquins slaves were used. The price of women slaves bought for domestic work was very little. Most families could afford one or two of them.

European travellers often spoke highly of the behaviour shown to women. They did that to show the differences between the treatment given here to women and the treatment of women in European countries. Bemierwrote extensively about the practice of Sati. Bemierpoints out that all women did not observe Sati in the same manner. Some jumped into the pyre happily. But some had to be forced into the pyre.

Question 25.
“The descriptions of Bernier influenced Western theorists.” Examine the validity of this statement.
Answer:
Since the time of the writings of Bernier, they have influenced Western theorists. These descriptions were used by the French Philosopher Montesquieu to develop his concept of Oriental Despotism. This theory argues that the Eastern (Oriental) Kings had full authority over their subjects. The subjects often lived in poverty. All land belonged to the ruler. There . was no private property. Except the King and the lords, all lived difficult lives.

This concept was further developed by Karl Marx in the 19^th century. The concept he developed is called Asiatic Production Process. Marx argued that even before colonization, in India and in other parts of Asia, the ruling class acquired the profits coming from extra production. This helped in developing village communities that had self-governing powers and were considered equals.

But these communities, in spite of their autonomous status, were supervised by the Centre. Till the extra profits flowed into their hands, the rulers respected the autonomous village communities. Marx considered the system of production in Asia as stunted and unfit for growth.

Question 26.
Bernier attitude was a comparison between the East and the West. Prepare an essay containing is views and descriptions about India.
Answer:
Things to be considered:

1. The non-progressive East
2. Problem of land ownership
3. Middle Class
4. Village Communities
5. Mughal Nation
6. Cities
7. Sati

Ibn Battuta and Bemierwrote their travel notes with their different views. Ibn Battuta was attracted by the newness and strangeness of things. He wrote about all the things that interested and impressed him. But Bernier’s descriptions were quite different. He gave more importance to negative things. He was interested in the contrasts he found between the things in Europe, especially in his country, France, and here, he wanted to influence the rulers to take just decisions.

Bernier presented India on the model of the binary opposition. This way India was presented as directly opposite to Europe. He also presented the differences between India and Europe on a comparative scale. India was at the lowest rung of the ladder. In short, Bernier felt that India was inferior and worse than the Western countries.

Bernier talked about land ownership in India. There was no private ownership of land here. The land here belonged to the king. The king divided the land among his lords. This was not good as people did not take an interest in developing the land and invest in the land for long term purposes.

Bernier says that there was no Middle Class in India. There were only 2 classes – the poor and the rich. The poor were the majority and they were suppressed by the ruling minority. There were too poor and too rich people, but there was no middle state. Bernier did not have a good impression about the Mughal Empire and its rulers.

The village communities were poor. They were often mistreated by the cruel landlords. Since there was no private land, people were not willing to work hard. Taxes were heavy. On the whole life in the village was unpleasant.

Bernier thought that the Mughal rulers were more interested in their comfort and luxury. They were not much worried about the welfare of the subjects. To Bernier Indian cities were Camp Towns. But his views are contracted by modem historians Bemier himself wrote to say that there were large scale exports from the country. Naturally from camp towns, they could not have exported a lot of things. For that, they would need manufacturing cities, trade cities and port cities. One touching description in Bernier’s writing is the description of Sati.

The widow in his description was a girl of about 12. He witnessed this piteous incident J in Lahore. This is what he wrote: “In Lahore, I saw a girl of 12 giving up her life in the pyre of her husband. She came to the pyre like a dead person. She was trembling with fear. She was crying piteously. I can’t describe the pain she must have been experiencing then. With the help of an old woman, 4 Brahmins performed the rituals. That woman forced the girl to sit on the pyre. To prevent her from running away her hands and legs were tied. That poor girl was burnt alive.”

We must admit that Bernier was often prejudiced against the East. But his descriptions offer us valuable information about the society and its ways of life at the time of his visit to India.

You can Download Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 4 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 4 Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings (Cultural Developments)

Question 1.
From which language does the word Stupa come?
Answer:
Sanskrit

Question 2.
Who got the Sanchi Stupa built?
Answer:
Asoka

Question 3.
Who used to organize the Ashwamedha Yagas?
Answer:
Kings

Question 4.
In which language was the Vedas written?
Answer:
Sanskrit

Question 5.
Where was Buddha born?
Answer:
Lumbini

Question 6.
Where was Mahavira born?
Answer:
Kundagramam

Question 7.
Which was the first venue where Buddha began to teach?
Answer:
Saranath

Question 8.
With which religion are the 4 Arya Satyas connected?
Answer:
Buddhism

Question 9.
Which is the book that contains the laws of Buddha Sangha?
Answer:
Sutta Pitaka

Question 10.
Who was the first woman who was admitted to Buddhism?
Answer:
Mahaprajapati Gomati

Question 11.
The caves that were carved out in rocks for Buddha Bikshustolive?
Answer:
Viharas

Question 12.
In which year was Buddha born?
Answer:
563BC

Question 13.
Match the items in Column A with the items in Column B.

Answer:

Question 14.

Answer:

Question 15.
Where is Sanchi Stupa located? What are its special features?
Answer:
The Sanchi Stupa is located on a hill in a small village called Sanchi Kanakera. This place is 20 miles north-east of Bhopal, the capital of Madhya Pradesh. Sanchi Stupa has different constructions and on the whole, it looks like a crown. Here we can see a temple built in the 5^th century BC and many other historical monuments and also a huge mound. The Sanchi Stupa was built by Asoka in the 3^rd century BC. During the time of the Sungas (183-72 BC), this was further developed.

Question 16.
Who are the ones who tried to take away the eastern gate of Sanchi? Why?
Answer:
The Sanchi Stupa was discovered in 1818. Europeans of the 19^th century were greatly interested in this – Stupa. The French wanted to exhibit the eastern gate of Sanchi in a museum in France. They tried to get permission from Shajahan Begum, the ruler of Bhopal. But they failed in their attempts. Some English people. also tried such methods. In the end, both the French and the English had to satisfy themselves with the plaster cast of the Stupa.

Question 17.
Who protected the Sanchi Stupa? Write the names of two Patrons.
Answer:
Shajahan Begum and her successor Sultan Jahan Begum protected the Stupa. They spent a lot of money in the maintenance of this ancient monument. Sultan (This is just a name and not a position) Jahan Begum (1901-1926) took great interest in the matters related to Sanchi.

She donated money to build a museum and a guest house there. It was by staying in this guest house, John Marshal wrote volumes about Sanchi. To publish the writings of John Marshal also, Jahan Begum sanctioned money. John marshal dedicated his books to Sultan Jahan Begum.

1. The protection and maintenance of the Sanchi monuments were possible because of the discretion and foresight of the rulers of Bhopal.
2. It was a great fortune that they were made safe from the greedy eyes of railway contractors, builders and the Europeans who wanted to take them away to Europe.
3. Sanchi is one of the most important Buddhist centres in India. The discovery of this completely upset our earlier concepts and understanding of Buddhism, This place is now under the protection of the Archaeological Survey of India.

Question 18.
Make a list of the famous thinkers that lived in the 6^th century BC.
Answer:
The 6^th century BC was a turning point in world history. In many parts of the world there were different philosophers that were contributing to human thought and understanding. In Iran Zaratushtra, In China Confucius, in Greece Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, in India Mahavira and Gautama Buddha -all these people lived in this period.

Question 19.
Kings conducted big Yagas. Explain them.
Answer:
In the beginning, yagas were conducted in large groups for the entire people. But from 1000 to 500 BC, yagas were conducted privately by householders for the prosperity of their family or.clan. But great yagas like Rajasuyam and Ashwamedhom were conducted only by kings and chiefs.

1. The yagas and rituals lost their earlier simplicity and purity. They became more noisy, showy, expensive and even violent. Such yagas were unaffordable by, ordinary people.
2. With the increase in the yagas and rituals, the importance and prestige of Brahmins began to increase. Things like yagas became the monopoly of Brahmins. They misused their position to exploit people.

Question 20.
The travel of Siddhartha outside the palace utterly changed his life. Explain.
Answer:
The real name of Buddha was Siddhartha. He was the son of Suddhodana, the head of the Sakya Tribe. Siddhartha was born in Lumbini near Kapilavastu, in 563 BC. He showed much interest in religious matters even when he was very young.

He married his relative Yasodhara early and they had a son named Rahulan. One day the chariot driver took Siddhartha to the world outside the palace. This changed his life. He saw 4 big ‘sights’ – an old man, a sick person, a dead body and a sanyasi (ascetic).

These sights upset Siddhartha. He became aware of the mortality of man. He realized that the body becomes weaker and weaker and then it dies. The ascetic he met was sick and old but the joy and peace in him surprised Siddhartha. He then decided to follow the path of the ascetic. Soon he left the palace seeking the Ultimate Truth. This incident in the life of Buddha is known as the ‘Great Renunciation’.

To seek the Ultimate Truth, Buddha tried different things. He even tried to torture his body till he«was about to die. Then he abandoned such extreme measures, and sat under a Bodhi tree, immersed in meditation. He then received Enlightenment. From then he was known as Buddha (One who is endowed with Wisdom or Enlightenment) orTathagathan (One who has gained the Truth).

1. Buddha made his first preaching (Dharmopadesam) in Saranath. Here he spoke to five ascetics whom he knew before. This preaching is known as ‘Dharma Chakra Pravarthanam’. These five ascetics became his first disciples.
2. The rest of his life Buddha taught about Dharma or the true way of life. He died in his 80^th year, in 486 BC at Kushinagari. His mortal remains were buried in 8 different places and it is believed that in all those places Stupas were built.

Question 21.
What are the basic principles of Buddhism?
Answer:
The basis of Buddhism is Four Arya (Noble) Truths with Ashtangamarga. The 4 Noble Truths Buddha taught are:

1. The world is a sorrowful place.
2. Desires are the cause of sorrow.
3. If we deny our desires, we can avoid sorrow.
4. By following the Ashtanga Marga, you can overcome sorrow.

The ashtanga margas are: right word, right deed, right life, right efforts, right memory, right view, right decision and right meditation.

Question 22.
Explain the structural working of Buddhism. Do you think that the Buddhist Sangha worked in a democratic manner? Justify.
Answer:
The disciples of Buddha belonged to different social classes. There were kings, rich people, and householders among his disciples. There were also labourers, artisans and even slaves in the group. Inside the Sangha all were equal. Once a person becomes a Bikhshu or Bikshuni, his/her previous position did not matter.

The bhikhus and bikhshunis were required to follow the Sangha rules. All these rules are explained in ‘Viriaya Pitaka’. The rules were made in such a way that they would help people to come away from their luxurious lifestyles and live in a simple way. The Sangha followed’ a democratic way.

The internal, working of the Sangha was based on the traditions of the Ganas and Sanghas in the Mahajanapadas. Problems were solved through discussions. If there were differing views, things were settled by vote.

Question 23.
What are Chaitanyas?
Answer:
From the very early times, people used to consider some places as very holy. These places had some special features. There were some rare trees or rocks there. The places were also extremely beautiful. In them there were small kovils or shrines. These places were called Chaitanya’s. Chaitanya came from the word ‘chitha’. In fact, Chaitanya is a prayer hall.

Question 24.
Explain hagiography. What is its role in recreating history?
Answer:
Hagiography is the life history of a religious leader or a saint. To understand the Buddha statues, art historians must be familiar with Buddha’s hagiography. Usually, in a hagiography, the achievements of the saint or leader are praised. They may not be fully true. But they are important, as they give us valuable information regarding the traditions followed by disciples of certain faiths.

Biographical records show that Buddha got his Enlightenment as he was meditating under the Bodhi Tree. In many statues, Buddha is not shown at all. Sometimes he is represented as an empty seat, Stupa, wheel and such symbols.

1. The empty seat is symbolic of Buddha’s meditation.
2. The Stupas symbolize his final days, or death (Mahaparinirvana).
3. The wheel is symbolic of Buddha’s first preaching at Saranath.

Question 25.
In the background of the Sanchi Stupa, describe the making style and structure of the stupas. How do stupas help in the recreation of history?
Answer:
Stupas are found in Chaitanya’s. These are mounds where part of the mortal remains of Buddha or some things he used is buried. They have been made with bricks or stones. They have a lot of story value.

1. Even before the coming of Buddhism, the practice of making stupas was in existence. Later it became attached to Buddhism.
2. Since they are built over the remains of Buddha or the things he used, they are worshipped as a sign of Buddha and Buddhism.

Followers of Buddha built many stupas in different. parts of India. The Buddhist Book “Asokavadana Sishta” says that Emperor Asoka sent the mortal remains of Buddha to all the important towns of his empire and ordered stupas to be built over them. By the 2^nd century BC, many stupas were built. The most famous stupas are in Bharhut, Sanchi, and Saranath. Stupa is a Sanskrit word meaning a heap or mound. In the early times, stupas were in semi-circles.

Later they were known as ‘anda’. Gradually, the structure of the stupas became complex. They now acquired circular and rectangular shapes. Over the andas, they built some kind of balcony. It was called harmika which means ‘sreekovil’. It represents the abode of god. From harmika rose a flag-post, called ‘yashti’. Around this, there were chhatris (umbrellas). Around the mound, a stone wall was constructed separating it from the material world around.

The early stupas in Sanchi and Bharhut were simple. The gates and the fences were looking as if they were made of bamboos or wood. There were four entrance arches to the stupas. These arches were decorated with sculptures. The worshippers entered the stupa from the eastern archway and went round the mound, Later these stupas were adorned with various sculptures and inscriptions. Such decorated stupas can be seen in Amaravati and Shahji-ki-dheri in Peshawar in Pakistan.

Question 26.
Explain the principles of Jainism.
Answer:

• All things in the world have life. Even stones, rocks, and water have life and soul.
• Non-violence is the central principle of Jainism. It taught not to trouble humans, animals, insects and plants.
• The ultimate aim of human life is nirvana or getting moksha.
• Nirvana is the release from birth and rebirth.
• Karma causes birth and rebirth. If one wants to get moksha, his karma should be right. Only through the Triratnas – good knowledge, good action, and good faith-one can acquire moksha.
• To come out of the karma circle, asceticism and meditation are essential. For that worldly life should be given up. The Jain ascetics, both men and women, should take five pledges.
  1. Don’t kill
  2. Don’t steal
  3. Don’t lie
  4. Don’t own property
  5. Practise chastity

Question 27.
Bring out the basic differences between Mahayana and Hinayana.
Answer:
Buddhism was divided into two Mahayarta and Hinayana.

1. Hinayana means lesser vehicle or lesser wheel. Hinayana followed the basic tenets of Buddhism. They followed the old tradition. They continued using Pali to propagate their faith.

2. Mahayana means Great vehicle. They followed new principles and code of conduct. Worshipping the idols of Buddha and the Bodhisatwas became an important part of this group.

3. Mahayana followers looked at Buddha as a savior and worshipped him as a god. They prayed to him for moksha and guidance. Thus piety became the main feature of Mahayana Buddhism.

4. Mahayana followers believed in the concept of Bodhisatwa. Each follower here should try to become a Bodhisatwan. By serving others and performing Doble deeds anybody can become a Bodhisatwan.

5. Mahayana followers worshipped even some famous Bodhisatwans.To propagate Buddhism, Mahayana followers used Sanskrit.

Question 28.
The Stupa in Amaravati was neglected but the one in Sanchi was protected. Why?
Answer:
Amaravati Stupa was discovered before the discovery at Sanchi. But the scholars were not then aware of the importance of preserving the historical monuments. Sanchi was discovered in 1818. Of the 4 doors, three were still intact. The 4^th was lying down. The mound did not have any damage. The Europeans tried take away the doors to London or Paris, but because of the timely interference of the rulers in Bhopal, they were protected. But the ‘Mahachaitanya’ of Amaravati still remains as a small mound. It has lost all its past glory.

Question 29.
Were women allowed into the Buddhist Sangha? Clarify.
Answer:
In the beginning, only men could be members. But later women were also included. It was because of the persuasion by Ananda, who was one of the dearest disciples of Buddha, that Buddha allowed women into the Sangha. They were known as ‘bikhshunis’. The first bikhshuni was the foster mother of Buddha. Her name was Mahaprajapati Gomathy. All bikhshunis were propagators of the religion. They tried hard to become ‘theri’ – respectable women who were entitled to moksha.

Question 30.
Why were the stupas built? What is their importance?
Answer:
Stupas are holy places. These are mounds where part of the mortal remains of Buddha or some things he used is buried. They have been made with bricks or stones. They have a lot of story value.

1. Even before the coming of Buddhism, the practice of making stupas was in existence. Later it became attached to Buddhism.
2. Since they are built over the remains of Buddha or the things he used, they are worshipped as a sign of Buddha and Buddhism.

Followers of Buddha built many stupas in different parts of India. The Buddhist Book “Asokavadana Sishta” says that Emperor Asoka sent the mortal remains of Buddha in all the important towns of his empire and ordered stupas to be built over them. By the 2^nd century BC, many stupas were built. The most famous stupas are in Bharhut, Sanchi and Saranath.

Question 31.
Do you think the stupas were built from the donations received from people? Justify.
Answer:
On the pillars and bars of the stupas, there are many inscriptions. These inscriptions record that the stupas were built with the donations from people. From a different sections of the society, funds came.

1. Some donations came from kings like Satavahanan.
2. Guilds also gave donations. It was the artisans who made sculptures with ivory that gave the money to make a door in Sanchi.
3. Ordinary men and women also gave donations, their names, profession, birthplace, and names of their relatives are inscribed on the stones.
4. Bhikshus and Bikshunis also gave their contributions to building the stupas.

Question 32.
Describe the structure and style of making of the stupas.
Answer:
Stupa is a Sanskrit word meaning a heap or mound. In the early times, stupas were in semi-circles. Later they were known as ‘anda’. Gradually, the structure of the stupas became complex. They now acquired circular and rectangular shapes. Over the andas, they built some kind of balcony.

It was called harmika which means ‘sreekovil’. It represents the abode of god. From harmika rose a flag-post, called ‘yashti’. Around this, there were chhatris (umbrellas). Around the mound, a stone wall was constructed separating it from the material world around.

The early stupas in Sanchi and Bharhut were simple. The gates and the fences were looking as if they were made of bamboos or wood. There were four entrance arches to the stupas. These arches. were decorated with sculptures. The worshippers entered the stupa from the eastern archway arid went round the mound, Later these stupas were adorned with various sculptures and inscriptions. Such decorated stupas can be seen in Amaravati and Shahji-ki-dheri in Peshawar in Pakistan.

Question 33.
Why did Buddhism become popular? To which all countries did it spread?
Answer:
Even during Buddha’s lifetime and also after his death Buddhism began to grow popular. It spread into China, Japan, Burma, Sri Lanka, Mangolia and Tibet. The quickly changing social environment and the dissatisfaction of people with the existing religious practices attracted them to Buddhism. The following were the additional reasons:

1. Buddhism gave preference to values and conduct more than to birth. It rejected the caste system.
2. It stressed compassion, especially to the children and the destitute.
3. Its principles were easily understandable.
4. Buddha used Pali, the language of the common people, to propagate his religion. It increased its popularity.
5. It got the support of kings like Asoka, Kanishka, and Harsha.
6. The working of the Buddhist Sanghas also helped in increasing its popularity.

Question 34.
In ancient Hindu Religion there are two Traditions. What are they? What are their salient features?
Answer:
The two traditions are Vaishnava religion and Saiva religion.

1. Vaishnavas worshipped Vishnu as the main god. Saivas worshipped Siva. In their worship piety was the main factor. Piety is the love and dedication the worshipper shows his god.

2.  In Vaishnava religion, the followers accepted the ten avatars of Vishnu. The Vaishnavites believed that whenever the world was threatened by immoral powers with violence and destruction, Vishnu appeared as a new avatar to save the believers.

3. Different avatars became popular in different parts of the country. Local deities were also viewed as Vishnu’s avatar. It was a way to make a unified religious tradition. In different sculptures, Vishnu appeared in different forms.

Question 35.
Find out the relation between the items in A and complete the blank in B accordingly.

1.a) Mahayanam – Big wheel
b) Hinayanam – …………

2.a) Jainism-Triratnas
b) Buddhism – ………..

3.a) Mahavira – Kuntagramam
b) Buddha – ……….
Answer:
1. small wheel
2. Ashtangamangas
3. Lumbini

Question 36.
The 6^th century BC was a period of social revolutions in India. On the basis of this statement, explain the origin of Buddhism and Jainism.
Answer:
Areas to be considered:

1. Yaga tradition
2. Brahmin authority
3. New Economic system
4. Fresh questions
5. Discussions and Talks
6. Sacrifices and Debates

The 6^th century BC was a turning point in world history. Many philosophers were found in different parts of the world. In Iran Zaratushtra, In China Confucius, in Greece Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, in India Mahavira and Gautama Buddha -all these people lived in this period.

1. They tried to find out the mysteries of existence.
2. They tried to find the relations between man and the universe.
3. They tried to analyze the social and economic happenings of the time.

In India, the 6^th century BC was a period of social revolution. In the Ganges valley, new Empires and cities came up. Social and economic life of the people was changing in various ways. These changes caused many religions to come up. The most important of them were Jainism and Buddhism. Let’s see the causes for their rise.

Sacrificial Tradition: Even before the coming of Jainism and Buddhism, different philosophical concepts and religious traditions were in existence. One of them was the Veda tradition. We know things about that period from Rigveda, which was collected between 1500 and 1000 BC.

Rigveda is a collection of hymns praising gods like Fire, Indra, and Soman. These hymns were recited during the sacrifices (Yagas) which were performed by the people to have health, children, cattle wealth and long life.

In the beginning, yagas were conducted in large groups for the entire people. But from 1000 to 500 BC, yagas were conducted privately by householders for the prosperity of their family or clan. But great yagas like Rajasuyam and Ashwamedhom were conducted only by kings and chiefs.

The yagas and rituals lost their earlier simplicity and purity. They became more noisy, showy, expensive and even violent. Such yagas were unaffordable by ordinary people. With the increase in the yagas and rituals, the importance and prestige of Brahmins began to increase. Things like yagas became the monopoly of Brahmins. They misused their position to exploit people.

The Problems of Jati and Language: In the post-Veda period the society was divided into 4 Varnas. It caused a lot of conflicts in the society. Brahmins claimed the highest status. They had special rights. They were exempted from taxes and punishment. The Kshatriyas objected to this. Since Mahavira and Buddha were Kshatriyas, they too were against this Brahmin domination.

Vaisyas and Sudras opposed the authority of the higher Varnas. Although the Vaisyas had money and power, their position was lower than the Brahmins and Kshatriyas. Naturally they welcomed the new religions.

All the Vedic books were written in Sanskrit. So, most of the people did not understand anything. The incantations for yagas and rituals were recited in Sanskrit. People repeated them without knowing what they said. Mahavira and Buddha propagated their religions in Pali and Prakrit. So people accepted them easily.

The New Economic System: The growth of the agricultural economy helped the new religions to develop. The use of iron made it possible to clear forests and make bigger farms. Agricultural technologies also became better. The development of agriculture increased the demand for cattle, as bullocks were used for ploughing the farms.

Brahmins killed a lot of cattle for various sacrifices and therefore there was a reduction in the cattle wealth. Priestly sacrifices of animals became an obstacle for agriculture. Naturally, people welcomed the new religions which advocated non-violence.

New Questions: The philosophical questions in the Upanishads also made people unhappy. The Upanishads say that people were interested in knowing the essence of life, the possibility of life after death, rebirth, etc. Issues like the relation of karma with rebirth caused a lot of heated debates. People were interested in finding out the Ultimate Truth.

Many people even doubted if there is anything called the Ultimate Truth. They also doubted the importance of Veda tradition. Debates and Discussions: We get some idea about the debates and discussions of those times from the Buddhist books. There were some 64 different kinds of ideological streams.

Religious teachers travelled across the country and discussed matters with the common people. They tried to impress upon the people with the importance of their thinking. People also discussed and debated these matters. These discussions were conducted in some special tents with tapering tops called ‘kudagarasala’ or in groves where the bikshus stayed during their journeys. If one philosopher defeated another one in a debate, the followers of the defeated one would follow the winning philosopher. Therefore the support for a particular stream would increase or decrease fast.

People like Mahavira and Buddha questioned the authenticity of the Vedas. They gave importance to personal actions. They asked the people, men and women, to make efforts to be free from the worries and anxieties of this world. Their attitude was quite different from the attitude of the Brahmins who gave importance to one’s birth and not his way of life.

Question 37.
Write an essay defining the principles of Buddhism, Buddha Sangha and the Spread of Buddhism.
Answer:
It is from stories that we learn about the principles of Buddhism, especially from “Suttapitaka”. Some of the stories here describe the miraculous powers of Buddha, There are also stories which speak highly of his wisdom, logic and sense of reality. These stories point out that without showing any miracles, he tried to teach people things logically.

For example there is this story. A mother whose son had died came to Buddha asking him to bring her dead son back to life. He did not perform any miracle of raising the boy from death. But he convinced the mother about the inevitability of death.

All these stories are written in Pali, the language of the common people. So, people could understand them easily. In his first preaching at Saranath we can see the important principles of Buddhism.

The world continuously changes. There is nothing permanent or immortal in it. There is no soul in it. In short the world is without eternity and without soul. The basis of Buddhism is Four Noble Truths (Arya Satyas) with Ashtangamarga. The Noble Truths are:

1. The world is a sorrowful place.
2. Desires are the cause of sorrow.
3. If we deny our desires, we can avoid sorrow.
4. By following the Ashtanga Maiga, you can overcome sorrow.

The ashtanga margas are: right word, right deed, right life, right efforts, right memory, right view, right decision and right meditation.

Followers of Buddha: For his ascetics Buddha made an organization called ‘Sangha’. Their main duty was preaching or dharmopadesa. They lived a simple life keeping only the basic necessities. They had a small bowl for taking alms. Since they lived with the alms they received they were known as ‘bikshus’. Initially there were only men. But because of the influence of Ananda, a favourite disciple of Buddha, women also were enrolled. They were called bikshunis. The first bikshuni was Buddha’s foster mother, Mahaprajapati Gomathy. All bikshunis wanted to be ‘theri’, respectable women who have got moksha.

The disciples of Buddha belonged to different social classes. There were kings, rich people, and householders among his disciples. There were also labourers, artisans and even slaves in the group. Inside the Sangha all were equal. Once a person becomes a Bikhshu or Bikshuni, his/her previous position did not matter.

The bikhshus and bikhshunis were required to follow the Sangha rules. All these rules are explained in ‘Vinaya Pitaka’. The rules were made in such a way that they would help people to come away from their luxurious lifestyles and live in a simple way. The Sangha followed a democratic way. The internal working of the Sangha was based on the traditions of the Ganas and Sanghas in the Mahajanapadas. Problems were solved through discussions. If there were differing views, things were settled by vote.

The Spread of Buddhism: Even during Buddha’s lifetime and also after his death Buddhism began to grow popular. It spread into China, Japan, Burma, Sri Lanka, Mangolia and Tibet. The quickly changing social environment and the dissatisfaction of people with the existing religious practices attracted them to Buddhism. The following were the additional reasons:

1. Buddhism gave preference to values and conduct more than to birth. It rejected the caste system.
2. It stressed compassion, especially to the children and the destitute.
3. Its principles were easily understandable.
4. Buddha used Pali, the language of the common people, to propagate his religion. It increased its popularity.
5. It got the support of kings like Asoka, Kanishka, and Harsha.
6. The working of the Buddhist Sanghas also helped in increasing its popularity.

Question 38.
What are Stupas? Prepare a note on them.
Answer:
Stupas are holy places. These are mounds where part of the mortal remains of Buddha or some things he used is buried. They have been made with bricks or stones. They have a lot of story value.

1. Even before the coming of Buddhism, the practice of making stupas was in existence. Later it became attached to Buddhism.
2. Since they are built over the remains of Buddha or the things he used, they are worshipped as a sign of Buddha and Buddhism.

Followers of Buddha built many stupas in different parts of India. The Buddhist Book “Asokavadana Sishta” says that Emperor Asoka sent the mortal remains of Buddha in all the important towns of his empire and ordered stupas to be built over them. By the 2^nd century BC, many stupas were built. The most famous stupas are in Bharhut, Sanchi and Saranath.

Stupa is a Sanskrit word meaning a heap or mound. In the early times, stupas were in semi-circles. Later they were known as ‘anda’. Gradually, the structure of the stupas became complex. They now acquired circular and rectangular shapes. Over the andas, they built some kind of balcony. It was called harmika which means ‘sreekovil’. It represents the abode of god. From harmika rose a flag-post, called ‘yashti’. Around this there were chhatris (umbrellas). Around the mound, a stone wall was constructed separating it from the material world around. The early stupas in Sanchi and Bharhut were simple.

The gates and the fences were looking as if they were made of bamboos or wood. There were four entrance arches to the stupas. These arches were decorated with sculptures. The worshippers entered the stupa from the eastern archway and went round the mound, Later these stupas were adorned with various sculptures and inscriptions. Such decorated stupas can be seen in Amaravati and Shahji-ki-dheri in Peshawar in Pakistan.

You can Download Kerala: Towards Modernity Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 15 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 15 Kerala: Towards Modernity

Question 1.
The region in Kerala which was under the direct rule of the British.
Answer:
Malabar

Question 2.
The first book printed entirely in Malayalam?
Answer:
Samkshepavedantham

Question 3.
The person who prepared the first Malayalam Dictionary (Sabdakosam)?
Answer:
Amos Pathiri

Question 4.
The Founder of Samatwa Samajam?
Answer:
Vaikunta Warrier

Question 5.
The Founder of Sadhu Jana Paripalana Sangham?
Answer:
Ayyankali

Question 6.
The founder of Atmavidya Sangham?
Answer:
Vagbhatanandan

Question 7.
The leader who led the ‘Savarna Jadha’?
Answer:
Mannath Padmanabhan

Question 8.
Explain the growth in plantation crops in Kerala during the colonial period.
Answer:
An important change that happened during the colonial period in the economic system of Kerala is the growth in plantation crops. Europeans took the initiative to start new plantations and invest capital in them. The main plantations crops were tea, coffee, rubber, and cardamom. Plantations crops proved more successful in Travancore than in Malabar. There were some reasons for that. The soil and high land of Travancore were better than those of Malabar. Therefore plantations crops developed fast in Travancore. This helped the British to earn a lot of wealth. The tax collection system in Malabar was not good enough.

Question 9.
Point out the role played by missionaries in the modernization of Kerala and in its education.
Answer:
An important driving force behind the growth of Kerala Was its education. The contributions made by missionaries in this field are highly valuable. They played a big role in expanding education. In the first decade of the 19th century, the London Mission Society (LMS) and Church Mission Society (CMS) started working in Travancore.

Rev. Mead was a missionary of CMS, who devoted his entire life in expanding education here. In 1817 the CMS College and a seminary were founded at Kottayam. To encourage women’s education, the missionaries established a grammar school and other schools.

The first school in Kochi was established in 1818 in Mattanchery. A missionary named Rev. Dowson was its founder.

At the same time, Rev Twinkle Tab, a Spanish Missionary in the Salvation Army founded English schools in the southern parts, including Nagercoil.

It was Basil Evangelical Mission (BEM) that spread education in Malabar. In 1848, they established a primary school in Kallai and in 1856, another school at Thalassery.

The contributions made by the Christian missionaries encouraged the governments of Kerala to take up education more seriously. In 1817, the ruler of Travancore, Gauri Parvati Bai, started free, compulsory primary education. In many areas of Travancore, schools were established. In 1839, during the reign of Swathi Thirunal, the first English school was begun. Another school was started in Thalassery.

Question 10.
Make a list of reforms that were brought about in the three regions of Kerala.
Answer:
Malabar

• District and Provincial courts were established.
• A chain of roads was made.
• In Ancharakandi, a spice garden was established.
• Many cloth and tile factories were founded.
• Kozhikode, Thalassery, Kannur Municipalities came into existence.
• Railway link was established with other areas of the country.
• In Nilambur a teak grove was established.
• To bring timber, a canal was made (e.g. Kanoli Canal).
• Timber business was encouraged.

Kochi

• Lower Courts and Huzur Courts were founded.
• All important Devaswoms were brought under the government.
• In 1845, slavery was banned.
• The survey of the land was made and taxes were fixed.
• Railway lines were made.
• Established Health, Agriculture and Fisheries departments.
• Kochi Tenant (Leasing) Law was passed.
• A Staff Selection Board was established.

Travancore

• Owners of land were given ‘pattayams’ showing details of the land.
• Slavery was banned in 1812.
• Renewed judiciary by founding 5 district courts and 1 Appeal Court.
• In 1811, the administration of Dewaswoms was taken over by the Government.
• Improved coinage, communication, agriculture and trade.
• Banned feudal conventions like “talavari” and “Uzhiyam”.
• In 1888, a Law-Making Council with 8 members was formed.
• Founded, many factories, electrification schemes, canals and post office?

Question 11.
The British brought some changes in the laws of Kerala. Find them out.
Answer:
In the system of law that the British brought, there were Western legal thoughts and concepts. They founded a chain of civil and criminal courts. They made sure that principles like the Rule of Law and Equality before Law were enforced. They also made a united legal code that included the laws of the land.

Question 12.
What made Pazhassiraja fight against the British? Write about the various stages of the Pazhassi Revolt.
Answer:
The Pazhassi Revolt was one of the most significant revolts in South India against the British. The British had established their authority over Malabar. Their wrong attitude to justice caused the Revolt. Keralavarma Pazhassiraja was a member of the Kottayam Dynasty of Malabar. In the beginning, he was in friendly terms with the British. In the Mysore wars, he even helped them. As a reward for his help, the British granted him the right to collect taxes from people.

But when Malabar came under their authority, the British forgot this promise. The right to collect taxes was given to an uncle of Pazhassi, the King of Kurumbanad. This King charged the people heavy taxes and used very cruel methods to get the money from them. It was in this context that Pazhassi rebelled against the British.

There were two stages in the Pazhassi Revolt. The 1st stage is from 1793 to 1797. Pazhassi started his revolt by preventing the tax collection for the British. Pazhasi’s army consisted of Muslim and Nair farmers and members of Kurichi tribe. It strongly withstood the attacks by the Company’s army. Pazhassi ‘ requested the help of Mysore to drive away the British from Wayanad. The British army was continuously defeated and in 1797, it withdrew from Wayanad, making an agreement with Pazhassi. With this, the first stage ended. The 2^nd stage of the Revolt started in 1800.

The reason was the move of the British to take over Wayanad. With the help of the Kurichis and Kurumbars in his army, Pazhassi withstood the attacks. Finally, Wellesley defeated Pazhassi in a bitter battle. Pazhassi still continued his resistance. But an army under Thomas Harvey Bebar, a sub-collector of Thalassery, defeated Pazhassi on 30 November 1805, In the battle, Pazhassi lost his life.

Question 13.
There were strong uprisings against the British in Travancore and Kochi. In the context of this statement, describe the anti-colonial activities of Veluthampi Dalava and Paliathacchan.
Answer:
After occupying Malabar, the attention of the British turned to Kochi and Travancore. They tried to establish their political and commercial interests in these places. In 1800, the Company appointed Col. Macaulay as the Resident of Travancore and Kochi. Macaulay started controlling the internal affairs of these native states. By this, the rulers lost their sovereignty.

Veluthampi was the chief minister (Dalawa) of Travancore. In 1805, the British signed a friendship treaty with Travancore. Through this, the Resident got the power to interfere in the internal affairs of the state, which lost its political freedom. He insisted that the tribute which the state owed to the Company should be paid within a certain time, without giving any consideration to the financial difficulties facing the state. One man named Mathu Tharakan owed a lot of money to the state as tax arrears. Velu Thampi Dalawa ordered to confiscate his property. But Macaulay interfered and canceled the order of the Dalawa. All these incidents prompted the Dalawa to embark on an armed conflict against the Company.

Paliathacchan was the Prime Minister of Kochi. He had enmity with Macaulay. Veluthampi Dalawa made a secret agreement with Paliathacchan. They also secretly contacted the French in Mauritius and the Zamorin of Kozhikode and requested them to give their support in their fight against the Company. In 1808 the combined armies of Travancore and Kochi attacked the residence of Macaulay in Kochi. The Resident escaped in a British ship.

As the revolt was in progress the Dalawa reached Kundara. He issued a proclamation on 11 January 1809 asking the people to join him against the British. This is called ‘Kundara Proclamation’ (Kundara Vilambaram). It is considered as an important document showing the fight of South India against colonization.

The British hit back. They attacked Kochi. Paliathacchan withdrew from the revolt by signing a treaty with the British. The British persuaded the Travancore King to remove Velu Thampi from his post. Unnini Thampi became the new Dalawa. The new Dalawa asked the police, to arrest Velu Thampi. A reward was declared for catching him. Velu Thampi took refuge in a house at Mannadi. When the combined forces of the British and Travancore surrounded the house, Velu Thampi committed suicide. He did not want to be caught alive and insulted. With this, the heroic resistance against the British ended in Travancore.

Question 14.
Kerala witnessed a silent but comprehensive social revolution in the 19th and 20th centuries. Evaluate the Social Reformation Movements in Kerala in the context of this statement.
Answer:
In the 19^th century, in Kerala, there were many religious superstitions, rituals, and conventions. There were also social injustices and economic injustices.
The Feudal lords suppressed the farmers. The Upper Castes ill-treated the lower castes. This made the life of poor people miserable. There were so many illogical and even foolish practices related to menstruation, marriage, pregnancy, and death. Slavery also existed here.

• The Kerala Brahmins received a lot of privileges.
• The lower caste people did not have a good position
  in society. The Upper Caste people controlled their modes of dress, freedom to travel and entry into temples.
• There were untouchability and pollution rules. In Travancore and Kochi, government jobs were not given to people of lower classes.

It is in this social background that the Social Reformers started their fight against the ills of society. Although all-India Movements like Arya Samajam and Theosophical Society had their branches in Kerala, their influence was very little here. Here the social revolution was the result of local Movements. Here are some Social Reformists that worked in Kerala in the 19^th and 20^th centuries.

Vaikunda Swamikal: He was bom in 1808, in the . village called Sastamkotta Vila near Kanyakumari. He started Samatwa Samajam’.

He published: ‘AkilattirattuAmmanai’and ‘Arul Nool’.

Reforms:

• For the first time, he started ‘Kannadi Prathishta’ in South India.
• His faith was called the way of the father (“Ayyavazhi”).
• He objected to all kinds of discrimination and stood for social equality.
• He objected to priesthood, idol worship, and animal sacrifice. He worked for the freedom of the lower castes and the welfare of women.

Sri Narayana Guru: Hewas born in the village of Chempazhanthi in Thiruvananthapuram district, in 1854. He founded the Sri Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam.

He published: “Atmopadesa Sathakam”, “Daiva Sathakam”. “Darsanamala”, “ Siva Sathakam” and “Navamanjari”.

Reforms:
Worked for the ending of superstitions and caste discriminations. He encouraged people to take up Western education, trade, and business enterprises.
He made the famous slogan “One Jati, One Religion, One God, for Man”.
He raised his voice against the control by Upper Castes. Shocking the conservatives, he did ‘Siva Pratishta’andAruvipuram.

Chattambi Swamikal: He was born in 1853 at the village of Kollur in Trivandum district. He published ‘Prachina Malayalam’, ‘Adibhasha’ and ‘Vedadikara Nirupanam’.

Reforms:

• He objected Jati and other illogical social rituals.
• He challenged the monopoly of Brahmins to study Vedas.
• Objected to the animal sacrifices in temples.
• He contributed a lot to Malayalam Literature and language.

Ayyankali : He was bdrn in 1863 at Venganur in Trivandum. His Organization was Sadhu Jana Paripalana Sangham. ‘

Reforms:

• He fought for freedom to travel and education for the lower classes.
• He opposed the Jati System. He organized labour protests and agriculture boycotts to get lower-class students admission in public schools.
• Against the restrictions placed on the mode of dress by lower-class people, he organized the ‘Kallumala Protest’. He asked people to break and throw away the. Kallumala’.

Vakkom Abulkhader Moulavi: He was born in 1873, at Vakkom in Chirayinkeezhu.taluk. He made the Travancore Muslim Mahajana Sabha.

He published: Swadesabhimani (edited by K. Ramakrishna Pillai), Al-Islam (An Arabic-Malayalam Magazine).

Reforms:

• He is the architect of the modernization of Kerala Muslims. He asked the Muslims to give up all anti- Islamic rituals.
• He asked the Muslims to get a Western education and to take part in Movements for development.
• He was the founder and owner of Swadeshabhimani Newspaper.

Vagbhatanandan: Hewas born at Patyam in 1885. He founded ‘Atmavidya Sangham’. He published Abhinava Keralam (Magazine), Atmavidya Kahalam (Journal), Sivayogavilasam (Magazine).

Reforms:

• Acknowledged the right of the lower classes to enter temples.
• Showed interest in the economic progress of the lower classes,
• He took active interest in Agricultural Movements.
• He opposed Jati and idol worship. He encouraged Yuktichintha and critical thinking. He was interested in prohibition (of alcohol).

Mar Kuriakose Elias Chavara : He was born in 1805, in the village Kainakari in Kuttanad.

He published: ‘Atmanuthapam’, “Idayariatakangal’, ‘Dhyanasallapangal’ and ‘Nalagamangal’.

Reforms:

• He founded many schools in Central Kerala. He encouraged Sanskrit education. He opened a Sanskrit school at Mannanam, in 1846.
• The founded orphanages for the poor and old people.
• He encouraged the education of dalits. He funded two schools for them.
• He started St. Joseph’s Printing press at Mannanam.
  It was the first indigenous printing press in Kerala.

V.T. Bhattathirippad: He was born in 1896 at Mezhathur.

He published: “Adukkalayil Ninnum Arangathekku” and “Kannirum Kinavum”.

Reforms:

• He fought against the discrimination against the Namboodiri women and widows who had to suffer a lot because of insults and ostracism.
• He opposed dowry and the marrying of young girls to old men.

Question 15.
Women also made a lot of contributions to the Social Reformation Movements of Kerala. Explain with examples.
Answer:
Women have given priceless contributions to the Social Reformation Movements of Kerala. Parvati Nenminimangalam, Arya Pallam, Sarada Amrnal, K.C. Narayani Amma Kalikkutty Asatty etc. did a lot to awaken women and raise their social status. They also worked hard for the removal of social evils that plagued the Kerala society. They helped in the removal of the Jati system, increased women’s education, did a lot for women empowerment and social justice, the prosperity of labourers and farmers, thinking with reason, use of public space and the uplifting of the Dalit community.

Question 16.
Describe the fight for a democratic society in Kerala and how the Shanar Agitation (Channar Lahala), Vaikom Satyagraha and Guruvayur Satyagraha helped in that fight.
Answer:
There were many social evils in Kerala. There was control based on taste. Even basic human rights were denied to some castes. Human dignity did not mean anything to the Upper Classes. Against such injustice, some popular movements worked hard. Here are some of the most important movements.

Shanar Agitation: This was one of the early fights against social injustice. This took place in Southern Travancore. This is also called ‘Melmundu samara’. Women of the Channar Community were not allowed to cover the upper part of their bodies with any doth or dress. Then, when Col. Monroe was the Diwan, he issued an order allowing the Channar women (Nadar) to wear a dress if they became Christians.
The Channar women were not satisfied with this. They started appearing in the public wearing shawls like women of the Upper Classes. The Upper-Class Hindus did not like it. They attacked the Channar women, who retaliated. Finally on 26 July 1859, the government issued a royal edict removing restrictions on the dressing.

Vaikom Satyagraha: This is the first famous public protest against untouchability. This protest was organized forgetting the right to use the paths near the. Vaikom Temple by lower caste Hindus. The leaders of this Satyagraha were T.K. Madhavan, Mannath Padmanabhan, C.V. Kunjuraman, K. Kelappan, and K.P. Kesava Menon.

An important event connected with the Vaikom Satyagraha is a procession of High Caste Hindus organized by Mannath Padmanabhan. The Procession wenttoTrivandum and met Maharani Sethulaxmi Bai and presented their request to her.

The Vaikom Satyagraha and the Savama Procession (Jatha) helped in forming positive public opinion regarding Temple Entry to all Castes. Finally, Gandhi interfered and the protest was successfully concluded. All the paths, except two, around the Vaikom Temple, were opened for use by all kinds of people.

Guruvayur Satyagraha: This was a milestone in the social reform movement of Kerala. It was a great event against untouchability. This protest was begun with the demand that all Hindus should be allowed to worship in the temple. The Guruvayur temple was under the control of the Kozhikode Zamorin and only Upper Caste Hindus could worship there.

The Satyagraha started on 1 November 1931. K. Kelappan and Mannath Padmanabhan led the protest. Kelappan started a fast unto death in front of the temple.

Some fanatic Upper-Class Hindus attacked volunteers like A.K. Gopalan and P. Krishna Pillai. On 2 October 1932, on the advice of Gandhi, the Satyagraha was ended. An opinion poll was conducted in Ponnani Taluk to find out public opinion about the issue. Most of the people supported temple entry by lower caste Hindus also. Although results did not come immediately, the Satyagraha helped in forming public opinion in favour of Temple Entry by all manners of Hindus.

Question 17.
Agitation against untouchability continued in Kerala even after independence. Explain with examples.
Answer:
Agitation against untouchability had to continue in ‘ Kerala even after independence. Paliyam Satyagraha ‘ was one such agitation:
In Kochi, there were many temples in front of the houses of the Upper Caste Hindus. Lower Caste Hindus were denied entry there. Paliathacchan was the Prime Minister of Kochi. His, house was in Chennamangalam. Lower Caste Hindus tried to walk on the road in front of his house and this; brought about big clashes. It was in these circumstances the Paliam Satyagraha was started. This was done jointly by the organizations like State Praja Mandalam, Communist Party, and S.N.D.P. Yogam.

They started to agitate in front of the Paliam Family to get the street open for all. On 4 December 1947, C. Kesavan inaugurated the Satyagraha. The government used force to suppress the agitation. One of the leaders of the agitation, A.G. Velayudhan, was killed and the Satyagraha was suspended for some time, in March 1948. In April 1948, the government issued orders regarding Temple Entry for all. With this, all could use the public streets.

Question 18.
Discuss the formation of Malayali Being and the United (Aikya) Kerala Movement.
Answer:
The Malayalam language played a big role in the cultural unity of people from Travancore, Kochi, and Malabar. The roots of the Malayan Being based on language and region could be traced to “Leelathilakam”, a grammar book of the 14th century. It talks about a community that speaks Malayalam.

In fact, the concept of ‘Malayali Being’ (Individuality or Personality) was formed at the end of the 19th ‘ century. The spread of modern education was the reason for that. It gave the idea of a region where people spoke the same language.

The Printing technology and the founding of local language newspapers also helped in this concept. There was a practice of appointing outsiders to do the work in Government offices of Kerala. In 1891, a mass petition (memorandum) signed by 10,028 persons was submitted against this practice. It was called the Malayali Memorial. This was a sign of new awareness.

The National Movement gained momentum at the beginning of the 20ttl century. The concept of Malayali Being also grew with this. This concept spread beyond the boundaries of native states of Travancore, Kochi and Malabar and the need for a unified region was felt, In 1921, Kerala Pradesh Congress Committee (KPCC) was formed on the basis of language. It represented people from Travancore, Kochi, and Malabar.

The all-Kerala political meeting under Congress was summoned at Ottappalam in 1921. It was the first meeting in which representatives from Travancore, Kochi, and Malabar jointly participated. The desire for the Malayali Being was expressed in the book titled “Onnekal Kodi Malayalikal” by EMS Namboodiripad.

In April 1947, there was a United Kerala Meeting at Thrissur under the chairmanship of K. Kelappan. It passed a resolution demanding a United Kerala. On 1 July 1949, the State called “Thiru-Kochi” was formed combining Travancore and Kochi. It was an important step for the formation of United Kerala. The dream of a State of Kerala was fulfilled by the State Re-Organizing Committee under Sayed Fasal Ali. It recommended the formation of Kerala State uniting Travancore, Kochi, and Malabar. On 1 November 1956, Kerala State officially came into being.

You can Download Kinship, Caste and Class Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 3 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class (Early Societies)

Question 1.
Who prepared the critical edition of Mahabharata?
Answer:
V.S. Sukthanker

Question 2.
Which is the most important book in Dharmasutra (Dharmasatra)?
Answer:
Manusmriti

Question 3.
What is the mode of traditional love marriage?
Answer:
Gandharva Marriage.

Question 4.
Which is the Veda in which ‘Purushasuktam’ is found?
Answer:
Rigveda

Question 5.
Who was the archaeologist that made excavations based on Mahabharata?
Answer:
B.B. Lai

Question 6.
Who is the author of “Kunti O Nishadi”?
Answer:
Masheshwata Devi

Question 7.
What does‘Kulam” indicate?
Answer:
Families

Question 8.
Who is the god of war and rain?
Answer:
Indra

Question 9.
Marriage in the same unit is called:
Answer:
‘Swagana’ marriage.

Question 10.
From where did the Sakas come to India?
Answer:
Central Asia

Question 11.
Match the items in column Awith those in Column B.

Answer:

Question 12.
What is Mahabharata? Write a note.
Answer:
It is the longest epic in the world. It has more than one lakh slokas. This is the richest book in the Indian subcontinent. It took nearly a thousand years to write it, starting from 500 BC.
The central theme of Mahabharata is the conflict between Kauravas and Pandavas. This book talks about a number of social classes and their rules and regulations. The main characters of the story followed these rules as heeded. Any moving away (deviation) from these rules created conflicts.

Question 13.
What are the differences between ‘swagana’ marriage and ‘anyagana’ marriage?
Answer:
Swagana marriage means marrying within one’s own gana or group. This can be relatives, classes or castes and people living in the same place.
Anyagana marriage shows it is a marriage outside one’s gana-group.

Question 14.
How did clans (family groups) come into existence?
Answer:
Right from 1000 BC, the Brahmins began to divide people into clans or classes. Each clan was given a name of a Vedacharya. Members of that clan were considered his followers. There were two important rules regarding the clans:

1. A woman leaves the clan of her father and accepts the clan of her husband.
2. Members of one clan, can’t marry members of the same clan.

The Brahmin laws regarding the clans were not obeyed by all people. Rulers like the powerful Satavahanas, who ruled parts of Western India between 2^nd century BC and 2^nd century AD, did not follow the Brahmin laws. The wives of the Satavahana kings retained their fathers’ clan name. The clan names like ‘Gautama’, Vasishta’, etc. were of their fathers.

Question 15.
Describe the patriarchal order.
Answer:
From 6 century BC, most Indian Dynasties followed the patriarchal system. It was a male-dominant system. After the death of the father, only the sons were entitled to his property. If the father was a king, the right to the crown belonged to the sons. This patriarchal system played a big role in marriage.

Question 16.
To enforce the Caste System the Brahmins used some strategies. Explain.
Answer:
By the end of the Vedic period, the Caste system became very strict. Brahmins used the caste system to ensure their supremacy in society. They claimed that this system was divinely ordained. The divine origin of the caste system was emphasized in the Dharmasastra also.

• The highest position in the caste system was given to Brahmins by the Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras. The untouchables were placed at the bottom of the ladder.
• The caste of a person was based on birth.

The Brahmins did all they could to make people follow the caste system. They formulated three techniques,

1. They propagated that the caste system is ordained by god.
2. They asked the kings to strictly enforce this system in their countries.
3. They tried to convince people that one’s class and caste are decided by birth.

Question 17.
What were the duties of Chandalas?
Answer:
Manusmriti has detailed the duties of the Chandalas. They should live outside the village. They can use only the discarded pots and pans. They should wear ornaments made of iron and clothes of the dead. They could not walk in the towns and villages at night. It was their duty to dispose of the dead bodies of those who had no relatives. They also had to work as executioners.

Question 18.
Who is the real author of Mahabharata? Assess the various viewpoints.
Answer:
One of the responsibilities of the scholars was the preparation of a critical edition of Mahabharata. This hugely challenging scheme was accepted by the handarkar Oriental Research Institute. This scheme began in 1919 under the leadership of the Sanskrit scholar V.S. Sukthanker. Dozens of scholars took part in this s big scheme. The work went on in good order, strictly following the scientific method.

Before embarking on this project, the scholars under Sukthanker collected as many manuscripts as they could get from different parts of India. After that, they compared the slokas in different manuscripts. They then chose the common slokas found in all versions. Then they published them in different volumes running into more than 13,000 pages. It took them 47 years to complete this task. Two things became clear from this project.

First of all, there were common features in the Sanskrit version of the story. There are evidences for this from the manuscripts collected from all over India, from Kashmir and Nepal in the North and Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the South. The second thing is that there were regional variations in the story. This happened centuries ago and the books became popular. All these differences are shown as footnotes and appendices, in the main book.

More than half of the entire book is devoted to these differences. The social history of India is made up of some very complex processes. We are to understand these processes from the Sanskrit books written by Brahmins. It was the historians of the 19^th and 20^th centuries that looked into the problems of social history. Therefore they took these books on their face value. Later the scholars also began to study the books written in Prakrit and Tamil.

It is the ideas in the Sanskrit books that are generally approved as authentic. But sometimes they have been questioned or rejected. When we consider how the social history was reconstructed, we should also remember that there were many differences even among scholars.

Question 19.
What are the exceptions of the patriarchal system?
Answer:
There were some exceptions and differences to the patriarchal system. If a family did not have male children, the brothers of the king would have the right to the crown. In some circumstances, other relatives also claimed the crown. On very rare occasions even women claimed authority and property as in the case of Prabhavati Gupta.

1. The patriarchal system did not limit itself to royal families.
2. Brahmins, people in high positions and rich people also followed this system.

Question 20.
According to Manusmriti, who are the heirs to the property of the dead father?
Answer:
Manusmriti says that the paternal property should be divided among the sons after the death of the parents. He said that the eldest son should be given a bigger share. But female children had no right to these properties. However, women were allowed to keep the gifts they received at the time of their wedding.

Later such gifts went to their children. Husbands had no right over these things. At the same time, women were not allowed to keep family property or expensive items without the knowledge of their husbands.

Manusmriti says that there are 7 ways for men to earn wealth: hereditary property, property that one makes, property that is bought, confiscated property, deposits, profession and property received from benefactors. Six ways are suggested for women to earn wealth, wealth received through pledge by fire, wealth received through marriage, wealth received because of affection, wealth got from father, mother or brother, wealth got as gifts, and the riches given by the loving husband.

Question 21.
What is meant by Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras? Who upholds them?
Answer:
With the coming of the new towns and cities, social life became more complex. People from far and near began to come to the urban centres to sell their products and get their needs. It also gave the people an opportunity to exchange ideas. Then they started questioning the old faiths and rituals. To face these challenges, the Brahmins formulated a code of conduct.

The rules that people had to keep in their day-to-day life were included in this code. These rules were to be rigidly observed by the common people, but only less rigidly by Brahmins. From 500 BC, these rules were published as Sanskrit books. They were known as Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras.

Question 22.
Who was Gandhari? What advice did she give Duryodhana?
Answer:
Gandhari was the mother of Kauravas. Duryodhana was her eldest son. The Mahabharata talks about the advice given by Gandhari to Duryodhana when the battle between the Kauravas and Pandavas became certain. She advised him to establish peace between the two groups.

This is what she said: “By establishing peace, you will be showing your” obedience to your father, me and your benefactors. It is the wise man who can control his senses that will guide his country.

Greed and anger takes a person away from his achievements. A king that can defeat these two enemies can conquer the entire world. My son, enjoy this earth with the Pandavas who are wise and fit to be leaders. War does not bring any good, morality or profit. Don’t prepare your mind for war.”

Question 23.
Explain the relation between the Satavahana rulers and the status of women.
Answer:
Names of many kings belonging to different generations of Satavahanas have been found on the stone inscriptions. The Satavahana kings used the title king and the word ‘Putra’ at the end of their names. Putra is a word in Prakrit language, it means son. Gautami-Putra means the son of Gautami. The names ‘Gautami’ and ‘Vasati’ are the feminine forms of the ’ tribes ‘Gotame’ and ‘Vasishta’which were named by the Vedacharyas.

Question 24.
What is the meaning of the word ‘Vanik’ mentioned in Sanskrit books? Were they merely Vaisyas?
Answer:
Vanik was the word used in Sanskrit books and inscriptions to mean traders. According to the Sastras, trading is the profession of the Vaisyas. But in the plays like Mrichhakadikam (written the 4itl century AD) by Sudrakan, some highly complex situations are seen.

Charudattan, who is the hero of the play, is shown both as a Brahmin and also a trader. In one inscription belonging to the 5th century, it is shown that two brothers, shown as Kshatriya- Vanikar, giving a donation for the building of a temple.

Question 25.
Who are called Chandalas by the Brahmins?
Answer:
Brahmins considered certain tasks as impure. Burying the dead bodies of both people and animals was considered such a task. People who did this kind of work we’re called Chandalas. They were at the bottom of the caste ladder. The upper caste people believed that even seeing such people made them impure.

Question 26.
The stories of Mahabharata are divided into two groups by historians. Was the division very strict? Explain.
Answer:
The contents of Mahabharata have been usually grouped by historians into two parts – narrative arid didactic. In the narrative part, there are stories. In the didactic part, there are suggestions regarding social rules and regulations.

This is not a very strict division. Even in the didactic portion, there are stories. In the same way, there are suggestions in the portion of stories. Whatever be the case, historians agree that Mahabharata is a dramatic and touching story. They feel that the didactic part was added to the Mahabharata during the post-Mauryan period.

Question 27.
Discuss the differences between Varna and Jati.
Answer:
The Brahmin books speak about the social divisions called Jati. According to the thinking of Brahmins, birth is the basis for Jati, just like it is the basis for caste. There are only 4 Varnas. But the number of Jatis has no limit. Whenever the Brahmin chiefs met new groups which did not fit in with the 4 Varnas, they considered them as Jatis.

For example, they categorized the Nishadas living in the forests and the goldsmiths (Suvamakarar) as Jatis, as they were not fitting into the Varna System.

Question 28.
Property rights were decided by gender. Explain.
Answer:
It was gender the decided property rights. Evidence for this is available from a sub-story in the Mahabharata. There was constant rivalry between the Pandavas and the Kauravas. With the intention of cheating the Pandavas, Duryodhana invited Yudhishtira for a game of dice.

In the game, Dharmaputra mortgaged gold, elephants, chariots, slaves, army, treasury, country, the wealth of the subjects, brothers arid even himself. He lost all these. Finally, he even pledged his wife Panchali to continue with the game. This part of the story makes the importance of gender in matters of property.

Question 29.
“Not all families are alike.” Evaluate this statement.
Answer:
Family is the basic unit of the society. But not all families are alike. They differ in the number of members or size, mutual relations, and the different kinds of work they do and their responsibilities. The members of the family share their food and other facilities.

They live together and work together and follow certain rituals. Families are part of a large chain that is referred to as kinfolk. Relations in the family are natural and based on blood. In some communities, cousins are considered to be related by blood. But some others don’t think so.

Question 30.
What is special about Hastjnapur?
Answer:
In the first section of Mahabharata, Hastinapur is equated with the city of Devendra. This city was like a sea. There were hundreds of tall palatial buildings with their intricate gates and archways and plenty of small towers. The clouds hovered above them giving them a heavenly glow which made the city look like the city of Devendra.

Question 31.
According to the Sastras, only Kshatriyas could become kings. Do you think this rule was always kept? Justify your answer.
Answer:
According to the Sastras, only Kshatriyas could become kings. But many important dynasties did not belong to the class of Kshatriyas.

1. The Mauryas were not Kshatriyas. The Brahmin books consider them to be people belonging to. a lower class. Modern historians believe that the Mauryas were Vaisyas.
2. Sungas and Kannuas were Brahmins.
3. The Sakas that came from Central Asia were considered uncultured by the Brahmins.
4. Satavahana Kings claimed they were Brahmins: The most famous Satavahana King, Gautami Putra Satakarni called himself ‘Eka-Brahmin’ He also claimed to be the one who destroyed the pride of the Kshatriyas.

Question 32.
People who did not accept the ideas of the Brahmins were branded as uncultured and equal to animals. Critically evaluate this statement.
Answer:
There were many people in the society who did not accept the ideas of the Brahmins. Sanskrit books speak of these people, who were outside the circle of Brahmin influences, as uncultured, evil and equal to animals.

1. Forest dwellers, hunters, Nishadas, wandering shepherds, etc. were in this category.
2. People who could not speak Sanskrit were branded uncultured. They were looked upon with contempt. In spite of the mistreatment given to them, these people mutually shared their ideas and beliefs.
3. In some Mahabharata stories, the character of their relations can be seen clearly.

Question 33.
Through one legend in Sutta Pitaka, the social contract theory is explained. Describe the essence of this theory and evaluate its importance.
Answer:
Sutta Pitaka is a Buddhist book. There is a legend here. It says that man did not have a body that was full in shape. In the same way, the flora also had not developed completely. All the people lived in peace. They were happy and contented. They took only what they wanted from Nature. In short, it was an ideal society. But this state of things did not last long. Slowly it began to crack up: People became greedy, vengeful and deceitful.

This caused fights in the society. In this condition, people thought of electing an able person who could establish peace and drive away the mischief-makers. Since he was chosen by all the people, he was called Mahasamanthan. This theory has many levels of meaning:

1. It shows that kingship is something made by man. It came from a social contract According to that the king agreed to serve people. In return for his services, people agreed to give him taxes.
2. It acknowledges the act that people have a role in creating economic and social relations among men and in institutionalizing them.
3. It shows that since people created the system, they also have a right to change it when feel like changing it.

Question 34.
Archaeologist B.B. Lalmade extensive researches to find out the convergence between Mahabharata and real history. Give your views on the researches.
Answer:
In the Mahabharata, there are lively descriptions about the battles, forests, palaces, settlements and so on. Many historians have tried to find out the historicity of these descriptions. They are trying to find out how far the descriptions in Mahabharata are true to reality.

In 1951-52, B.B. Lal, a famous archaeologist, made extensive excavations in Hastinapur of Meerut in U.P. He tried to find out if this city is the same as the one mentioned in Mahabharata.

There is similarity in the name. Lai made excavations in the upper part of the Gangetic plain, where the country called Kuru was located. The Hastinapur mentioned in Mahabharata might have been the capital of the Kurus.

B.B. Lai found evidence of 6 levels of living houses (settlements) there. The 2^nd and 3^rd levels are especially important. The period of the 2^nd level settlement is from 12^th to 7^th century BC. Remains of houses have been found here. The walls were made of bamboos, covered with mud paste.

The period of the 3^rd level settlement is from the 6^th to 3^rdcentury BC. Lai found that the houses of this period were built with clay bricks and baked blocks. He also noticed the remains of drainages.

The findings of Lai do not conform to the descriptions of Hastinapur in Mahabharata. In Mahabharata, the city is described as a great city with hundreds of multiple story buildings and towers. The age described in the Itihasa is the same as that of the second level settlement. But here there are no indications of any big structure.

Therefore, historians think that the description of the city of Hastinapur in Mahabharata might have been added at a later date. There are also people who believe that the description came from somebody’s fertile imagination. They point out that there is no evidence to prove the description of Hastinapur as found in the Mahabharata.

Question 35.
“The growth of Mahabharata did not stop with the Sanskrit edition.” Justify this statement.
Answer:
The main feature of Mahabharata is its energy or vitality. With the writing of the Sanskrit edition, the growth did not stop. Different editions of the Itihasa have been written in different languages over centuries. Some special stories that originated or were popular among the local people also became part of the Itihasa.

Even the main plot of the Itihasa was restructured in many places. Many of the incidents in the Itihasa were depicted in statues and pictures, It gave themes to many performing arts like drama and dance.

The main story of the Mahabharata was rewritten by many writers in their works. ‘Yayati’ by V.S. Khandekar, ‘Randamoozham’by M.T. Vasudevan Nair and Kunti and Nishadin’by Maheshwata Devi are the chief among them. Maheshwata Devi is a famous Bengali writer.

She has received many awards including ‘Jnanapidom’. She is a famous writer who is known for raising her voice against exploitations of all kinds. From the main story in the Mahabharata, she made some parallel stories. She answered many questions that Mahabharata kept silent about.

Question 36.
Eight types of marriages are mentioned in the Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras. Which are they and what are their special features?
Answer:

1. Brahma Marriage – In this type, the adorned bride is given in marriage to a wise, gentlemanly bridegroom.
2. Prajapatya Marriage – Here the father gives his daughter in marriage without any dowry. This is an altered version of Brahma marriage.
3. Arsha Marriage – Here the father of the girl gives his daughter to the bridegroom from whom he gets a pair of bulls or cows.
4. Daiva Marriage-Here the bridegroom is a priest.
5. Asura Marriage – Here the bridegroom gives the bride price to the.father of the bride for getting the girl married to him.
6. Gandharva Marriage – This is love marriage in the traditional way.
7. Rakshasa Marriage – The bride is kidnapped from her house and then she is given to the bridegroom.
8. Paisacha Marriage – This was very rare. Here the man molests the girl and since she has lost her virginity she is forced to marry the molester.

Question 37.
What was the reason for the existence of polyandry?
Answer:
Because of frequent wars, there was a shortage of men, as many rru&i died during wars. There were many more women than men. Polyandry was the result of such a crisis. Early sources make it very clear that polyandry was not a widespread practice.

Question 38.
There are rules regarding the 4 Vamas (Classes) and about their work in the Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras. Describe them based on the Purushasuktam.
Answer:
The Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras specify the kind of work the 4 classes have to do.

1. The Brahmins were to learn and teach Vedas, perform Yagas and give and receive alms.
2. The Kshatriyas were to fight in wars, protect people, ensure justice, learn Vedas, get Yagas done and give alms.
3. The Vaisyas were also to learn Vedas, get Yagas done and give alms. In addition, they were to practice agriculture, do trading, and keep sheep.
4. The Sudras were to do only one thing – serve the other 3 Classes.

Question 39.
“The Mahabharata is a highly energetic book.” Based on this statement, prepare an essay about Mahabharata.
Answer:
When talking about books, historians take certain aspects into consideration.

1. Their language, whether it is in Pali, Prakrit, Tamil or Sanskrit.
2. Their genre – Are they mantras or stories?
3. Their authors, their viewpoints, the ideas that prompted them to write the book.
4. Their intended readers. Writers write books keeping in view the interests of their intended readers.
5. Their time and place of publication.

Only after looking into these things, the historians assess the contents of the books and their historical importance. It is a difficult task. In the case of a complicated book like Mahabharata, their task becomes all the more difficult.

Language and Content of Mahabharata: It is available in many languages. The Sanskrit of Mahabharata is simpler than that of the Vedas and Prasashtis for example, the Allahabad Prasashti. That is why many people could read and understand Mahabharata. Its simple language made it more popular.

The contents are divided into two – narrative and didactic. In the narrative part, there are stories. In the didactic part, there are suggestions on social rules and regulations. The division is not very strict, as they overlap. Whatever be the case, Mahabharata is a fine story. It is believed that the didactic part was added after the Maurya period.

Mahabharata is qualified as an Itihasa of the early Sanskrit literature. Itihasa means ‘It – hasa’ -“Thus It Was”. That is why it is considered history. The biggest event in the Mahabharata is the Battle of Kurukshetra. Among historians, there are differing views about this Battle.

Some say it was a real fight between relatives. But there are people who think there was never such a battle. There is no proof at all about such a battle.

Authors and Dates: Historians differ in these. Traditionally, some people think Vyasa Maharshi wrote it. But modem historians think it was written by different writers. Initially, in Mahabharata there were only less than 10,000 slokas. But it grew into a huge book with more 100,000 slokas.

It is not possible for a single person to write such a huge book. It is also believed that it was written at different periods.The original story of Mahabharata was made by a group of poets, known as ‘Sutas’.

These Sutas accompanied the Khastriyas into the battlegrounds and sang about the exploits and victories of the soldiers. These stories orally passed from generation to generation. It is believed that the writing of Mahabharata began in the 5^thcentury BC. The Brahmins took the initiative for this. They collected orally transmitted stories and wrote them down.

The chiefdoms called Kuru and Panchalam (the story of Mahabharata is about these) were becoming independent countries then. The kings must have wanted their history to be properly recorded. These new countries had to fight a lot of battles. Those – battles also must have found their way into the main plot.

The period from 2^nd century BC to 2^nd century AD was another important stage in the writing of Mahabharata. It was a time when the adoration of Vishnu was getting popular. Krishna who is an important character in Mahabharata is known as an ‘avatar’ of Vishnu.

Between the 2^nd and 4^th century AD, didactic sections closely resembling Manusmriti were added to Mahabharata. Thus it grew into a book of 100,000 slokas. The search for Convergence: In the Mahabharata, there are lively descriptions about the battles, forests, palaces, settlements and so on. Many historians have tried to find out the historicity of these descriptions. They were trying to find out how far the descriptions in Mahabharata are true to reality.

In 1951-52, B.B. Lai, a famous archaeologist, made extensive excavations in Hastinapur of Meerut in U.P. He tried to find out if this city is the same as the one mentioned in Mahabharata. There is similarity in the name. Lai made excavations in the upper part of the Gangetic plain, where the country called Kuru was located. The Hastinapur mentioned in Mahabharata might have been the capital of the Kurus.
B.B. Lai found evidence of 6 levels of living houses (settlements) there.

The 2^nd and 3^rd levels are especially important. The period of the 2^nd level settlement is from 12^th to 7^th century BC. Remains of houses have been found here. The walls were made of bamboos, covered with mud paste, The period of the 3^rd level settlement is from the 6^th to 3^rd century BC. Lai found that the houses of this period were built with clay bricks and baked blocks. He also noticed the remains of drainages.

The findings of Lai do not conform to the descriptions of Hastinapur in Mahabharata. In Mahabharata, the city is described as a great city with hundreds of multiple story buildings and towers. The age described in the Itihasa is the same as that of the second level settlement. But here there are no indications of any big structure.

Therefore, historians think that the description of the city of Hastinapur in Mahabharata might have been added at a later date. There are also people who believe that the description came from somebody’s fertile imagination. They point out that there is no evidence to prove the description of Hastinapur as found in the Mahabharata.

You can Download Pre Modern Kerala Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 14 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 14 Pre Modern Kerala

Question 1.
Who is the author of Mooshaka Vansa Kavya?
Answer:
Athulan

Question 2.
What was the river basin area in the Tinais?
Answer:
Mamtham

Question 3.
The farmers who cultivate the land taken on lease are called?
Answer:
Karalar

Question 4.
What is Anchuvannam?
Answer:
A group of merchants

Question 5.
The capital of Perumals.
Answer:
Makothai

Question 6.
The author of Perumal Tirumozhi?
Answer:
KulasekharaAlwar

Question 7.
What was the name given to the Code of Conduct of the Perumals?
Answer:
Kacha

Question 8.
The Brahmin Committee that administered the Sankethams?
Answer:
Yogam

Question 9.
Who brought the ‘Cartaz’ system?
Answer:
The Portuguese

Question 10.
The ruler who defeated the Dutch in the Colachel Battle?
Answer:
Marthanda Varma

Question 11.
The Organizer of Thrissur Pooram?
Answer:
Saktan Thampuran

Question 12.
Write a brief note on the prehistoric period of Kerala.
Answer:
It is not certain when people began to live in Kerala. It is believed that right from the Stone Age period, people lived here. In the Palaeolithic period, people were hunters and collectors of food. In the Mesolithic period, they made their living by catching fish. In short, prior to the Neolithic period, people made their living by hunting, collecting food and fishing.

In the Neolithic period, agriculture started all over the world. This brought revolutionary changes in the life of people. Although agriculture started in Kerala at this time, people continued hunting and fishing.

Question 13.
What are the professional groups connected with temples?
Answer:
There were many groups of people working with temple matters. Here are the most important of them:

1. Sabhayar – They were members of the Sabha and were the most powerful Brahmins.
2. Bhattas and Chattirs – the Brahmin scholars and students connected with the temple salas.
3. Tantrikal-They were the Santiadikal

There were also non-Brahmins working in the temples. These are the important ones:

1. Pothuval – General Secretary of the Temple
2. Akapothuval – In-charge of the internal matters of the temple.
3. Purapothuval – In-charge of the external matters of the temple
4. Variam – Committee for the supervision of temple work; Thottavariam means Committee supervising the garden.
5. Kottikal – Those who beat the chenda (tom-toms, or drums).
6. Nanka/Nakachi – Female Dancers
7. Chakyars-Male dancers
8. Adikkumavar-Sweepers
9. Wakidumavar-Distribute firewood

Question 14.
HowwasTamizhakam divided into different Tinais?
Answer:
In the Sangham Boetfe, five Tinais of different regions are mentioned.
They are Kurinchi, Mullai, Palai, Marutham and Neithal.
Kurinchi is the mountainous region, Mullai is the forest area, Palai is the dry place, Marutham is the agricultural land of the river basin, and Neithal is the shore. In the different Tinais different ways of earning livelihood existed.

Question 15.
What is Kaccam?
Answer:
We don’t have any clear records about the laws existing in the Perumal period. But we have some indications about the code of conduct existing then. This code of conduct is called ‘kaccam’. Temples and villages followed it. The most important kaccam was Moozhikkala Kaccam. Then there were four regional Systems known as Kadankat Kaccam, Thavaranur Kaccam, Sankaramangalathu kaccam, and Kaithavarathu Kaccam. The punishments for breaking the ‘kaccam’ are shown. They include ostracism, ousting from positions, confiscation of property and ostracising people from social and political matters.

Question 16.
Write about agricultural growth after the Perumal Era.
Answer:
The production of different crops continued even after the Perumal era. Some small changes, however, took place, until the 18^th century. In the wet soil with silt, in the compounds and lands around, agriculture was done. There was a considerable increase in agriculture. Paddy cultivation continued as before. It was the main food crop. Paddy was cultivated in the wet soil and in the low-lying areas between small hills and plateaus.

The evidences available in the Perumchellur and Kilimahur inscriptions show that rice cultivation was continued for long. From the Malayalam Books of the Middle Ages also we see that paddy was cultivated 2 or 3 times each year.

Different varieties of rice was cultivated. Kuruvachannel, Ponkali, Anakkadan, Cholan, Kadan, Modan, Killiyira and Viravittan varieties are mentioned in the book “Unnunili Sandesam”. By the 16^th century, all available wetlands were brought under cultivation. Agriculture was spread into the hillsides and valleys of small hills. The black soil fields between Kochi and Kollam were also used for cultivation.

Paddy was also imported from outside Kerala. After rice cultivation, the fields were used to plant banana. Pepper was a cash crop that was extensively cultivated at this period. It was grown in the compounds of households and also in the fields. There were no special groves for pepper. It was cultivated with other crops.

In ‘Sukasandesam’ written in the 14^th century, there is a description of the pepper vines climbing on coconut trees. Cardamom and Ginger were cultivated in the compounds of households. Turmeric was brought from Malabar. Nutmeg came from Kochi. Indigo came from Kollam. “Unniyachi Charitam” shows that indigo was sold in the markets. Cinnamon was also cultivated.

Coconut was an important item of cultivation. Coconuts were used for food and trade. In a Chinese book called “Daoyi Zhilue” written in the 14^th century, there is a description of the Kerala shore full of coconut trees. Fei Hsin, a Chinese Traveller of the 15^th century, has recorded that coconut was exported along with pepper, fish and area nut. By the 16^th century, coconut became an important trade item. By the 18th century, area nut farms spread all over Kerala. Area nut trees were found in compounds. There was a great demand for timber like teak and rosewood. Timber was collected from the forests and exported.

As the population was increasing, the cultivation of food crops had to be increased. The crops grown in the compounds were used for internal and external trade. Although there was cultivation of cash crops and food crops, a lot of land in Kerala was unfit for cultivation. It was the forests of Kerala that helped Kerala to have good economic strength.

Question 17.
What were the features of Swaroopams?
Answer:
Swaroopam was a political center of the 12^th century Kerala. It maintained a small army. They were called Ayirathavar, Pathinayirathavar, Padamalanayarand so on. Swaroopams had household deities.

There was something called ‘ariyittuvazhcha’. The eldest member of the family became the Moopan with elaborate rituals. The elevation to this status is called ariyittuvazhcha. It was also called ‘Hiranyagarbham’. During this time the rulers took some fancy titles. SwaroopamlTilid their own land. Their main income was from land. They also had political power over areas under their jurisdiction.

Question 18.
Explain the changes the European brought in the trade of Kerala.
Answer:
The Portuguese finished the monopoly that Arabs had in the Malabar Trade. By bringing Cartaz system they established their monopoly of sea trade, They got into trade agreements with the rulers of Kozhikode, Kannur, Kochi, and Kollam.

Question 19.
Describe the various reforms brought about by Marthanda Varma.
Answer:
One of the important steps he took was “Thnppadidanam”. On 3 January 1750, he dedicated the native state of Travancore as a donation to Sri Padmanabhan. By this Sri, Padmanabhan Swami became the owner and the king became his servant. With this Thrippadidanam, any mutiny and criticism against the king would be considered an anti-religious act.

Marthada Varma divided the country into many Revenue Units. The lowest unit was a village. The responsibility of the village administration was given to ‘pravarthiar’. A collection of villages was called “Mandapathu Vatikkal” It was under a manager, similar to a future tehsildar. Travancore was divided into 20 Mandapathu Vatikkals.
Marthanda Varma brought the system of presenting a yearly budget. It was called ‘Pathivu Kanakku’ (Regular accounts).

He organized a regular army. Soldiers were recruited from ordinary farmers. The farmers who served as soldiers were given tax exemption during their service period. This was known as ‘Irayili’. After retirement, soldiers were given a pension. It was called ‘Irayili aduthur’. To train the Travancore army, he got the assistance of a Dutch captain named De Lannoy.

Question 20.
What are ‘Granthavarikal? Name them.
Answer:
They are a great source for studying the history of Kerala of the Middle Ages. These are the collections of documents by which temples and dynasties transferred landed properties.

To establish one’s ownership of a property, only these documents were available. The following are the most important f them:

1. Mdthilakom Granthavari (Padmanabha Swami Temple)
2. Perumpadappu Granthavari (Kochi)
3. Kozhikodan Granthavari (Zamorins).
4. Vanjeri Granthavari
5. Koodali Granthavari

Question 21.
Write a note on Colechal Battle.
Answer:
Marthanda Varma conducted a series of wars against the Dutch. The Dutch made extensive preparations to fight with Marthanda Varma. A Dutch Army with cannons (huge guns) left Sri Lanka heading for Travancore. They landed at Colachel. They attacked arid captured places up to Kotar. Then the army moved to the fort of Marthanda Varma at Kaikalam. On 10 August 1741, the armies of the Dutch and Marthada Varma fought bitterly. The Dutch were routed. Many were taker) prisoners including Captain De Lannoy. Later he became the trainer, The Big Captain’, of Marthanda Varma’s army.

• The Colachel War did a lot of harm to the Dutch. It prevented their further growth and advancement.
• This was the first war in which a foreign army was defeated by a native king.

Question 22.
Evaluate the references found in Books of Literature and notes of foreign travelers regarding the progress in Kerala Trade.
Answer:
The surplus agricultural production here helped both internal and external trade. Things for daily use were exchanged in the local markets. These included rice, corn, vegetables, coconut oil, banana, and such things. There were daily markets, weekly markets, night markets and village markets for such exchanges. In the UnniChiruthevi Charitram, there is a description of a practical exchange center at Ayanarchira in the region of Valluvanad. Similarly, in “Unnunili Sandesam”, there is a description of a daily market in Karianad nearThiruvalla.

Question 23.
What are Swaroopams?
Answer:
Swaroopams were regions which enjoyed autonomy. They were controlled by strong matriarchal families. These big matriarchal families had occupied huge areas of land. Over these areas, the families had political and judicial authority. They were political power centers in those days.

Question 24.
In many parts of Central Kerala, there were Sankethams. What were they? Explain their structure and activities.
Answer:
Sanketham was another center of political power in Kerala. The Sankethams of temples and Brahmins were very famous. They are areas with semi-autonomous rule. In a Sanketham there would be one Brahmin temple and some villages around it. There were two types of Sankethams. a) Those founded by landowning Brahmins, b) Those founded by rulers to show their love and veneration for some deities or Brahmins.

Sankethams had a divine quality about them. Because of that, they were protected from wars and riots. Many Sankethams were administered by a Committee of Brahmins. These Committees were called Yogams.

In the Middle Ages in many parts of Kerala, Sankethams were in existence. K.P. Padmanabha Menon seems them as independent republics free from the control of the king. But the Vancheri Granthavari says that Sanketham was dependent on the nearby chiefs. For the formation of the Yogam, and for law and order problems they relied on the chiefs.
The property of Sanketam was protected by the local army. Such an army was called ‘Changatam’. In return for their services, they were given ‘kavalpanam’ (protection money), usually in the form of a share of the produce.

The spread of Swaroopam and Sanketam led to the growth of different kinds of landowning rights. It also caused the growth of agriculture – both cash crops and food crops. It also brought changes in the agricultural relations in places controlled by-laws relating to Jati Systems.

You can Download Understanding Partition Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 13 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 13 Understanding Partition (Politics, Memories, Experiences)

Question 1.
The law that brought separate constituencies for Muslims.
Answer:
Minto-Morley Reforms

Question 2.
Which Reformation Group was connected with the “Suddhi Movement”?
Answer:
Arya Samaj

Question 3.
Who prepared the Pakistan Resolution?
Answer:
Sikander Hayat Khan

Question 4.
The person who suggested the name Pakistan?
Answer:
Rehmat Ali

Question 5.
The director of the film‘Tamas’?
Answer:
Govind Nihlani

Question 6.
Do you agree with the view that the partition of India was a holocaust? Critically examine the issue.
Answer:
Holocaust means destruction and murder on a huge scale. During partition, large scale looting, murder, rape and arson were done. That is why Partition is called a holocaust.
The Nazis in Germany killed millions of Jews. Holocaust is used to refer to this mass murder. In this sense, the Partition of India also was a holocaust. The horrible things that happened in the Indian subcontinent make calling the Partition as a holocaust quite justifiable. Words like ‘Partition’ hide the seriousness of the killing and looting that went on during that time.

Question 7.
The anti-Indians in Pakistan and anti-Pakistanis in India were. the product of the Partition. Evaluate this statement.
Answer:
It is quite true that the anti-Indians in Pakistan and anti-Pakistanis in India were the product of the Partition. R.M. Murphy, a famous journalist, says that there are many anti-Hindus in Pakistan and anti- Muslims in India. They consider their opposite group as cruel, fanatical and vicious. Such misconceptions were in existence even before partition. But these beliefs were strengthened with the unfortunate happenings in 1947.

The voices of hared are still heard in both countries. When there are communal problems, anger and hatred come in the open. People mutually accuse each other, repeating the atrocities committed during the partition time. The policies of both India and Pakistan were based, to an extent, on these misconceptions.

Question 8.
The Partition is the central part of a long history. Based on this statement, explain the causes that led to the Partition and its outcomes.
Answer:
Some historians, both in India and Pakistan, believe that the Two-Nation Theory of Mohammed Ali Jinnah had actually originated in the Middle Ages. The two-nation theory stresses that the Hindus and Muslims of Colonial India are to separate nations. They show that difference has been in existence for centuries. The Partition of 1947 was just a climax for the long-standing rivalries.

These historians stress only rivalries. They do not see the friendship and cooperation that existed between them. Although there were differences between the two communities there was also the sharing of cultural and economic aspects.

Some scholars say that the Partition was the result of the communal politics that began in India in the beginning of the 20^th century. It was the separate constituencies allowed to the Muslims that caused such divisive thinking. Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909 allowed these separate constituencies. The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms expanded the concept still further. Separate constituencies helped the Muslims to elect their own representatives.

This was exploited by politicians. They started promoting religious thinking. Each politician, whether Hindu or Muslim, did some favours to the members of his community and thus gained acceptance among them. Their only purpose was to gain power by playing the religious card. Religious concepts began to influence politics. Enmity between religious groups grew.

Some incidents that took place in the first decades of the 20^th century also increased the tension between the two communities. In the 1920s and 30s, this enmity grew.

• Singing in front of the mosques, Save-the-Cow Movement, and the Suddhi Movement by Arya Samaj which tried to bring back coverts into other religions including Islam, made the Muslims unhappy.
• The growth of some Islamic Organizations like Tabligh (Islamic Preaching) enraged Hindus.
• Fanatics in both groups tried to organize their members with greater unity and solidarity. Opposing groups often clashed. This caused communal riots in many parts of the country.

Question 9.
What was the role played by the Congress Ministries in increasing the enmity between the Congress and the League?
Answer:
First elections to the vincial Assemblies were conducted in 1937. Only between 10 to 12% of the population had voting rights. The Congress won big victories. In 5 provinces, it had simple majority. In two provinces it had the highest number of seats. Thus Congress was able to form ministries in 7 out of 11 provinces. In two provinces there was coalition government.

In the Muslim Constituencies, the performance of the Congress was bad.

The performance of the Muslim League was very bad. It got only a small portion of the Muslim votes polled. In the North-West Frontier Province, it did not get even a single seat. In Punjab there were 84 Reservation seats. The League got only 2 out of these. In Sindh there were 33 Reservation seats. The League got 3.

Muslim League wanted to make a Coalition Ministry in United Province (present UP) by collaborating with the Congress. But since Congress had the simple majority. Congress refused League’s request. This increased the enmity between the Congress and League. League was now sure that in an untied India it would never get political power. The League started thinking that only a Muslim Party could look after the interests of the Muslims. It said that Congress was a Hindu Party.

Jinnah argued that League was the spokesperson for all Muslims. But this argument was not initially accepted. Only in 3 Provinces – United Province, Bombay and Madras – the League had some popularity. Its base was weak in Bengal, North-West Frontier Province and Punjab. (It is interesting to note that Pakistan was formed from these 3 Provinces.) Even in Sindh, League failed to form the government. League learned a lesson from this failure in the elections, It realized the importance of increasing its base and popularity among the Muslims. For that, it played the religious card.

In the meantime, Congress embarked on a programme to become more popular among Muslims. But it did not work. However, Congress tried to be a secular party. It began to propagate itself as the spokesperson for secularism. This secular stance of the Congress party frightened conservative Muslims and also some very rich Muslims who owned large estates.

Question 10.
The Partition was a sudden thing. What is your reaction to this statement? Explain with examples.
Answer:
Some believe that the Partition was a sudden affair. In 1940, even the League was not sure what it wanted. Initially, they wanted only “Muslim Majority Provinces with Autonomy”. But this simple demand grew into the demand for a separate nation in just 7 years. Nobody knew what the formation of a new nation implied or how it would affect the lives of the people in the future. Those who left their homes following the Partition were hoping that they would be able to return to their homes later when things settled.

Question 11.
What were the recommendations of the Cabinet Mission? How did the political parties receive them?
Answer:
These were the recommendations:

• Formation of an Indian Union including the British Provinces and the native states. India should remain one.
• Defence, Foreign Affairs and Communication should be handled by the Centre. Other matters may be administered by the Province and native states.
• The existing Provinces would be grouped into A, B, and C. In A group there will be Provinces with Hindu
  majority.
• In the B group, there will be Provinces of Muslim majority from the North West region. In Group C, Muslim Majority Provinces of the North East, including Assam, will be included.
• A Constitution-making Committee will be made. This Committee will be elected by the Provincial Assemblies.
• Until the Constitution is prepared, an Ad-hoc government will be formed in the Centre. It will consist of leaders of different political parties.
• Partition soon became inevitable. Most Congress leaders were against it. But they.had to finally agree to it They knew that although it was undesirable it was inevitable.
• There were only two people who vehemently opposed partition – Gandhi and Frontier Gandhi (Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan).

Question 12.
The Partition was an unavoidable tragedy. Do you think so? Compare the attitude of the Congress and Gandhiji about Partition.
Answer:
In an atmosphere that was tense and dangerous, Gandhiji came forward to establish peace and religious harmony among the warring people. He was 77 and all his life he had held fast to the principle of non-violence. He was ready to sacrifice everything he had for his principle. He believed that he could convince people to be peaceful. From the village of Noakhali in East Bengal, he travelled to the villages of Bihar trying to pacify people.

He also went to the slums of Calcutta and Delhi which were seriously affected by communal riots. He tried his best to prevent members of one community murdering the members of the other. Wherever he went he tried to build the confidence of the minority. However, the Congress Party, on the whole, believed that Partition was inevitable and after the initial objection most of the Congress Party leaders agreed to it.

Question 13.
How did the Partition affect the life of women?
Answer:
Historians have analyzed the feelings of the common people during and after the Partition. Many have written about the terrible experiences of many women. The worst victims of the Partition were women. Many of them were raped. Many were kidnapped and sold. They were forced to live a new life with strangers in a strange land. Somehow many of them suffered indescribable difficulties. But some adjusted with the new situation.

The governments of India and Pakistan did not bother to realise the complexities of human relations. Both governments decided to exchange women belonging to their respective countries – the Pakistani women in India had to go to Pakistan and Indian women in Pakistan had to come to India.

Following this, a countrywide search was made to locate the women abducted from both sides. Those who were found were sent back to their countries. Nobody bothered to seek the opinion of the women involved in this exchange. Thus women were denied to take decisions about their own lives.

According to statistics, a total of 30,000 women were rescued this way – 22,000 women from India and 8000 women from Pakistan. This rescue operation lasted until 1954.

Question 14.
Show the relevance of the concept of ‘Preserving the honour and dignity of the society’ during Partition with appropriate examples.
Answer:
Many have written about the terrible experiences of many.women. The worst victims of the Partition were women. Many of them were raped. Many were kidnapped and sold. They were forced to live a new life with strangers in a strange land. Somehow many of them suffered indescribably difficulties. But some adjusted with the new situation.

In the dangerous times of Partition the concept of ‘Preserving the honour and dignity of the society’ came into existence. Historians say the following:

• Honour and Dignity are often related to the idea of male domination. This concept has its origin from the feeling that ‘zamin’ and ‘zanan’ (land and woman) are owned by men. This concept was in existence in the village communities of North India from time immemorial.
• According to this concept, masculinity consists of the ability of a male in protecting his land and woman. There were plenty of quarrels about land and women among men. Women also subscribed to this view.
• Very often men killed their women-wives, daughters, sisters, etc. – if they felt that these women would be taken away by enemies. This is some kind of honour killing.

Question 15.
Even amidst the devilish acts of cruelty during Partition, there were still some people with virtues of sympathy, humanity and friendship. Explain with examples.
Answer:
Historians have unearthed many instances when people helped one another during the Partition, even when they belonged to different religions. A good example is that of Dr. Khush Dev Singh. He was a Sikh. He worked at Dharampur (Himachal Pradesh) as a specialist of TB (tuberculosis). He continued working day and night, giving food and medicine, helping people of different communities. The faith of the Muslims in Dr. Khush Dev Singh of Dharampur was like the faith the Muslims of Delhi had in Gandhi. One of the riot victims, Mohammed Omar, wrote to Khush Dev Singh a letter. He said that only in his protection he would feel secure and so he should be given a place in his hospital.

We learn more about the relief work done by Khush Dev Singh from his memoirs. In his book called “Love is Stronger than Hatred – 1947 – a Reminiscence” Khush Dev wrote, “What I did were my simple endeavours to do my duty as a human being to my fellow human beings.”

He visited Karachi twice in 1949. He has described his experiences in his book. His old friends and those who were helped by him spent some hours with him at the Karachi airport. There were also six police constables. They accompanied him to the aeroplane and saluted him. Khush Dev Singh says that his eyes were filled at the love shown by them.

Question 16.
What is the importance of oral historical tradition in the case of the Partition? What are its advantages and disadvantages?
Answer:
Partition was not a merely a political event. It has many levels of meaning. We can know a lot of things from those who experienced Partition and who survived it. It is memories and experiences that bring out the essence of an incident. Therefore the oral. tradition has a lot of importance in recreating the Partition and its repercussions.

• Personal reminiscences are very important. They help us to understand the experiences of the people in a better way. They show what exactly happened during the Partition and thereafter.
• Government documents give mainly information about the schemes and policies they carry out. We have different reports, files and letters from higher officials of those times.
• They throw light into the meetings between the British government and the different political parties. But these documents will not tell us how the decision to partition the country affected the people in general.
• The experiences of the poor and powerless people, help to increase the boundaries of historical research.
• Oral tradition is not the history of the rich and the famous. It is the experience of the marginalised which is usually ignored by mainstream history.

In spite of all these advantages, many historians do not approve an oral history tradition. They point out the following reasons:

1. The information got from oral tradition does not have precision.
2. The time mentioned by it is often not correct.
3. In oral tradition, generalization is impossible. Individual experiences are special and unique.
4. It is related to only external happenings.
5. It is limited to small incidents. Such incidents cannot explain the complex nature of History.
6. The basis of oral tradition is memory. Because of this necessary details may not be available. Often what is said is unbelievable.

Even if many people speak against oral tradition it has its own importance. When we study about things like the Holocaust in Germany, oral history is important in knowing about the miseries of people. Historians can compare written records with oral history to arrive at the truth. It is wrong to say that oral history is simply connected with external matters. The experiences of the people during Partition talk about the central story, and not external things.
To know about different things, different sources are needed.

We may know the number of abducted and rescued women from the government records of India and Pakistan. But only from their experiences will we know the mental and physical pain ad misery they suffered during their abduction and also rescue.